In many ways, the automobile has been one of the most important inventions of the modern age. People have been able to travel much more freely, and across much greater distances, than was possible in the past. The automobile, which most people refer to as the “car,” has also had some harmful consequences, such as pollution and accidents. However, it is clear that life has changed profoundly as a result of the car. Modern cars are very complicated, but the basic idea of how a car works can be described briefly. When the keys are turned in the ignition of the car, this creates aspark that ignites some gasoline vapour inside a cylinder. Then, the rapidexpansion of this vapour pushes against a part called a piston. The movement of the piston then causes a turning motion in a shaft that is connected to the wheels. The wheels turn, and the car moves. The invention of the car, and the engines used by cars, happened gradually in the late nineteenth century, mainly in France and Germany. In the early twentieth century, an American engineer named Henry Ford developed a new way of making cars. Instead of having one worker produce an entire car, he had each worker perform one part of the production of many different cars. This system was very efficient and allowed the mass production of cars. The first car to be produced in large numbers was called the “Model T.” The Model T Ford and other cars that were soon produced in large numbers were cheap enough that many people could afford to buy them. Many new roads were built and paved throughout North America to allow cars to be driven from town to town. People were able to travel much more easily and to visit places that had previously been difficult to reach. Some problems also came with the widespread use of cars. One of these problems was air pollution, because car engines burn gasoline, which produces poisonous exhaust fumes. Gradually, new laws and new technology have led to reductions in the air pollution that is caused by cars. Moreover, cars today are much more “fuel efficient” than they were in the past, requiring less gasoline to travel a given distance. However, this pollution is still a problem because of the many millions of cars that are used each day. Another problem has been car accidents, which have caused many thousands of deaths each year. During the 1960s, some journalists brought attention to the unsafe features of many cars. As a result, the safety of cars has been greatly improved. In addition, the use of seat belts is now required by law. However, car accidents continue to be a serious problem. The future is likely to bring many interesting new changes to the car. Improvements in the safety of cars, in fuel efficiency, and in the cleanliness of caremissions are continuing to be made. Also, the increasing use of the car in economically developing countries will probably have important effects upon people’s lives around the world.
freely:
without anyone stopping or limiting something
*the country’s first freely elected president
*EU members are allowed to travel freely between member states.
talk/speak/write etc freely
*In France he could write freely, without fear of arrest.
*We went outside so that we could talk freely without being overheard.
—
consequence:
result
*The high level of unemployment has produced harmful social consequences. | The safety procedures had been ignored, with disastrous consequences. | You made the wrong decision, and now you must take the consequences. (=accept the bad things that happen as a result) | As a/In consequence of your laziness and rudeness, I am forced to dismiss you.
—
profound:
to (cause to) start to burn such as a gas or chemical
The petrol tank suddenly ignited.
The candle ignited the plastic and started a small fire.
—
vapour British English vapor American English
a gaslike form of a liquid, such as mist or steam, often caused by a sudden change of temperature:
A cloud is a mass of vapor in the sky. | Strange vapors rose from the dark lake
—
expansion:
when something increases in size, range, amount etc
ￚsynonym growth
ￚsee also expand
expansion of
The rapid expansion of cities can cause social and economic problems.
expansion in
an expansion in student numbers
—
shaft:
▶ENGINE PART◀
a thin long piece of metal in an engine or machine that turns and passes on power or movement to another part of the machine
a drive shaft
—
gasoline :
a liquid obtained from petroleum, used mainly for producing power in the engines of cars, trucks etc
British Equivalent: petrol
—
pave:
to cover a path, road, area etc with a hard level surface such as blocks of stone or concrete
pave with
The city centre streets are paved with dark local stone.
a paved courtyard
Another source:
to cover (a path, area, etc.) with a hard level surface, esp. of PAVING STONEs: a paved courtyard | country boys who thought the streets of Hollywood were paved with gold (=that Hollywood was a place of wealth and success)
that street was paved with triangular stones
a paved road
—
fumes [plural]
heavy strong-smelling air given off from smoke, gas, fresh paint, etc., that causes an unpleasant sensation when breathed in: She felt sick from breathing in paint fumes. | The air in the railroad car was thick with tobacco fumes. | Gas fumes from car engines poison the air.
car fumes are lethal
the fumes in the well affected him and he fainted
this machine filters out the noxious fumes
—
fuel efficient:
a fuel-efficient engine or vehicle burns fuel in a more effective way than usual, so that it loses less fuel
—
likely:
something that is likely will probably happen or is probably true
ￚopposite unlikely
Snow showers are likely tomorrow. likely outcome/effects/consequences etc What are the likely effects of the law going to be?the most likely cause of the problem
likely to do/be something
Children who live in the country’s rural areas are very likely to be poor.
more/less/most/least likely Young drivers are far more likely to have accidents than older drivers.It is more than likely (=almost certain) the votes will have to be counted again.It could have been an accident, but that was hardly likely (=not very likely) .He could offer no likely explanation when I asked him.
—
cleanliness:
the practice of keeping yourself or the things around you clean
a high standard of cleanliness
—
emission:
a gas or other substance that is sent into the air
Britain has agreed to cut emissions of nitrogen oxide from power stations.
During the past several decades, there have been major changes within most Western countries in people’s attitudes toward sex,and in sexual behaviour. For people who have lived throughout this period, the changes have seemed quite remarkable. Until the early twentieth century, people in most Western countries did not have permissive attitudes regarding sexuality. For the most part, young people were expected to wait until marriage before having sexual intercourse. Of course, some premarital sex did occur, and prostitution was not rare. However, sexual behaviour was relatively restricted. As the twentieth century progressed, there was a gradual trend towardliberalization of attitudes toward sex. However, this trend was greatly speeded after 1960, when the first birth control pills became available. Thesecontraceptive pills made it possible for women to engage in sexual intercourse without much risk of an unwanted pregnancy. As a result, many women were more willing to have premarital sex than was previously the case. Also during the 1960s, Western countries were reaching high levels of wealth and education. A new and very large generation of young people was approachingadulthood, and there was a mood of rebellion against traditional norms. There was an increase in the number of people who engaged in sex before marriage, and also a greater openness about such behaviour. By the 1970s, sexual attitudes had become quite liberal, and many young people were quite promiscuous in their sexual behaviour. However, this patternreversed somewhat during the 1980s. There was increased concern about sexually transmitted diseases, including AIDS; moreover, many young women had been uncomfortable with the idea of unrestricted sexual behaviour. As a result, sexual attitudes became slightly more conservative during the 1980s and 1990s, although they remained much more liberal than in previous decades. In the early twenty-first century, most young people in Western countries begin having sex during their high school years, although some people wait until they areconsiderably older. Some young people are promiscuous, but most engage inmonogamous relationships that typically last for a period of several months or a few years. When one relationship ends, another usually begins soon after. This pattern usually continues until marriage. After marriage, most people have sexexclusively with their spouse; however, some people do commit adultery. Sexuality has changed a great deal in recent decades. It will be very interesting to see how people’s sexual attitudes and behaviour will change in the future.
attitude:
a way of feeling or thinking about someone or something, esp. as this influences one’s behavior: I don’t like her (unhelpful) attitude. | What is the company’s attitude to/towards this idea? | a pessimistic attitude of mind | You have an attitude problem! (=a bad attitude)
attitude to/towards
Pete’s attitude towards women really scares me.
positive/negative attitude
people with a positive attitude to lifethe country’s attitude of mind (=way of thinking) during the crisis
—
regarding:
(esp. in business letters) on the subject of; in connection with; concerning:
Regarding your recent inquiry … .
Regarding your recent inquiry, I have enclosed a copy of our new brochure.
—
sexuality:
interest in, the expression of, or the ability to take part in sexual activity
—
premarital:
happening or existing before marriage
premarital sex
premarital sex:
sexual relations between a man and a woman before marriage. In many countries, this is thought to be quite common and it is not generally considered to be as immoral or shocking as it was in former times, though some groups are strongly against it, e.g. the Catholic Church.
—
relatively:
quite; when compared to others of the same kind: The exam was relatively easy. | a relatively warm day for the time of year | Relatively speaking it’s not important.
—
restricted:
limited in your movements or in what you are able to do
The accident left her with restricted movement in her right leg. In those days women led very restricted lives.
—
liberalize:
to make a system, laws, or moral attitudes less strict
ￚliberalization noun [uncountable]
—
contraceptive:
a drug, object, or method used to prevent a woman from becoming pregnant when she has sex
free contraceptives
ￚcontraceptive adjective [only before noun] a contraceptive device
—
engage:
to be doing or to become involved in an activity
engage in/on/upon
Only 10% of American adults engage in regular exercise. The two parties engaged upon an escalating political struggle. Mr Armstrong was engaged in prayer.
engage in doing something
Despite her illness, she remains actively engaged in shaping policy.
Another Source:
to take part in: Politicians should not engage in business affairs that might affect their political judgment.
—
adulthood:
the time when you are an adult
ￚopposite childhood
—
rebellion:
when someone opposes or fights against people in authority or ideas which they do not agree with
a rebellion by right-wing members of the party
rebellion against
rebellion against traditional values
—
norms[plural]generally accepted standards of social behaviour
terrorists who violate the norms of civilized society social/cultural etc norms
—
openness:
the quality of being willing to accept new ideas or people
openness to/towards
the importance of openness to change
—
liberal:
willing to understand and respect the ideas and feelings of others: a liberal mind/thinker | a liberal-minded person
—
promiscuous:
having many sexual partners
the risks of promiscuous sexual behaviour
—
reverse: change
—
transmit:
formal to send or pass something from one person, place or thing to another
transmit something (from somebody/something) to somebody/something
Mathematical knowledge is transmitted from teacher to student.
—
sexually transmitted diseases:
STD a disease that one person passes to another through having sex, such as AIDS or herpes
—
unrestricted:
not held back or controlled
unrestrained anger/violence | the unrestrained use of force
unrestricted access to information
—
conservative:
—
liberal:
—
considerably:
much or a lot
It’s considerably colder today. Conditions have improved considerably over the past few years.
—
monogamy:
when a person or animal has a sexual relationship with only one partner
Monogamy is rare in most animal groups, but is common among birds.
ￚmonogamous adjective
We live in a monogamous society.
—
exclusively:
only
*This offer is available exclusively to people who call now.
*This room is exclusively for women.
*He writes exclusively for the Washington Post.
—
spouse:
formal
a husband or wife
Spouses were invited to the company picnic.
—
adultery:
sex between someone who is married and someone who is not their wife or husband
She had committed adultery on several occasions.
CULTURAL NOTE Although most people do not approve of people who COMMIT adultery, it is not a crime in the US. If someone who is married has a relationship with another person, people would usu. say that they are having an affair, rather than that they are committing adultery. In law, adultery is a reason someone can use to end a marriage.
The Mississippi River is the longest river within the United States, and the fourth longest river in the world. This river holds a special place in American history and literature, and in the imagination ofordinary Americans.The Mississippi River begins in the hills of northern Minnesota, near the Canadian border, and flows southward about 3700 kilometres, through ten states, before draining its water and silt into the Gulf of Mexico.Traditionally, the river is viewed as a natural boundary between the eastern and western halves of the United States. Until the year 1803, the areas to the west of the Mississippi River, and the areas around the mouth of the river, were claimed by Spain and by France. In that year, the French emperor, Napoleon, decided to sell this land to the United States of America. This sale, which is called the Louisiana Purchase, was very important for the United States. By controlling the Mississippi River, the Americans would be able to use it for transporting goods and people in this rapidly developing area. For many years, river-boats were the main method of long-distance transportation for people living near the Mississippi. Steam-powered boats, with large “paddlewheels” that pushed the boat forward, were very popular in the time before cars and airplanes. One of the famous cities along the Mississippi River is St. Louis. This city is known as the “gateway to the west.” During the nineteenth century, St. Louis was the last large town that people would pass through on their way to new farmland farther west. Today, St. Louis is famous for the “Gateway Arch,” a tall monument that welcomes people to the west. St. Louis is also known as the city where the music known as “the Blues” began. Near the mouth of the Mississippi River is another famous city, New Orleans. In terms of the style of buildings, New Orleans is said to be the most unusual American city, because it is influenced so strongly by Spanish and French traditions. Even today, the traditional festival of “Mardi Gras” is celebrated in New Orleans each year. New Orleans and the surrounding areas of the state of Louisiana are famous for spicy “Cajun” food. This style of cooking was developed by the French-speaking settlers of Louisiana. The Mississippi River is famous in many stories of American literature. For example, The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn, which were written by the author Mark Twain, are both set along the Mississippi River. Today, the federal and state governments of the United States are working topreserve the natural environment along the Mississippi River. People recognize the importance of keeping this river healthy and clean.
within
inside (a place, group, etc.); enclosed or contained by:
The children must remain within the school grounds during the lunch break. | There are serious differences of opinion within the party.
—
ordinary
average, common, or usual, not different or special :
It’s just an ordinary camera.
The book is about ordinary people .
Art should be part of ordinary life .
It is good because it is written in friendly, ordinary language. out of the ordinary (= unusual or unexpected )
Anything out of the ordinary made her nervous. in the ordinary way British English (= as normal )
The money is taxed as income in the ordinary way. somebody/something is no ordinary … (= used to say someone or something is very special )
This is no ordinary car.
Ruiz is no ordinary prisoner.
—
flow
to move smoothly (as if) in a stream:
The river flowed along rapidly. | Blood was flowing from his wound. | The cars flowed in a steady stream along the main road. | (fig.) As they sat around the fire, the conversation began to flow freely.
Another Source
▶LIQUID/GAS/ELECTRICITY◀
when a liquid, gas, or electricity flows, it moves in a steady continuous stream
flow over/down/through etc
These gates regulate the amount of water flowing into the canal.
If the windows are shut, air cannot flow freely through the building.
—
drain
to (cause to) flow off gradually or completely:
to drain all the oil from/out of the engine | Boil the vegetables for 20 minutes then drain off the water. | The rainwater drained off/away. | (fig.) These children drain my energy! | (fig.) This country is being drained of its best doctors. | (fig.) The old lady’s strength is draining away.
to drain water from a tank
—
silt
loose sand, mud, soil, etc., carried in running water and then dropped, e.g. at the entrance to a harbor, by a bend in a river, etc.
they dredged the silt from the bottom of the canal
—
Traditionally
following ideas and methods that have existed for a long time, rather than doing anything new or different SYN conventional :
He has a traditional view of women.
I went to a very traditional school.
traditional family values
a traditional way of life
traditionally adverb :
More women are entering traditionally male jobs.
The color black is traditionally associated with mourning.
—
view
to consider; regard; think about: I view his action as a breach of trust. | They viewed the future with some alarm. | The audience seemed to enjoy the show, but viewed from a theatrical standpoint, it was a disaster.
—
boundary
the real or imaginary line that marks the edge of a state, country etc, or the edge of an area of land that belongs to someone
boundary between
The Mississippi River forms a natural boundary between Iowa and Illinois.
National boundaries are becoming increasingly meaningless in the global economy.
We would need their agreement to build outside the city boundary .
The stream curves round to mark the boundary of his property.
Anything that crosses the boundary of a black hole cannot get back.
We walked through the churchyard towards the boundary wall .
The property’s boundary line is 25 feet from the back of the house.
boundary disputes between neighbouring countries
—
mouth
▶RIVER◀
the part of a river where it joins the sea
the mouth of the River Tees
مصب رود
—
rapidly
very quickly and in a very short time
The disease was spreading more rapidly than expected. rapidly growing/changing/expanding etc the rapidly changing world of technology
—
paddle
a short pole that is wide and flat at the end, used for moving a small boat in water
ￚsee also oar
paddle wheel
—
Gateway Arch
Read this aticle too
—
monument
a building, statue, or other large structure that is built to remind people of an important event or famous person
ￚsee also memorial
He erected a monument on the spot where his daughter was killed.
monument to
a fitting monument to the men who died in the battle
—
Mardi Gras
—
spicy
food that is spicy has a pleasantly strong taste, and gives you a pleasant burning feeling in your mouth
ￚsynonym hot
ￚsee also spicea spicy tomato sauce
—
Cajun
someone from Louisiana in the US who has French-Canadian ancestor s
—
preserve
to prevent (someone or something) from being harmed or destroyed: The ancient Egyptians knew ways to preserve dead bodies (from decay). | I think these interesting old customs should be preserved. | (humor) Lord preserve us from these so-called experts!
—
along
in a line next to the length of:
Trees grew along the river bank.
In 1999, the Nobel Prize for Peace was won by the organization known as “Doctors Without Borders.” This is the English name of the organization, based in Belgium, which won the prize for its humanitarianassistance to people around the world, in areas that have been struck by disaster. The fundamental ideas of Doctors Without Borders is that people who suffer from a disaster have the right to receive professional help as soon as possible. The organization helps people regardless of their nationality, race, religion, ethnicity, sex, or political opinions. Also, the assistance provided by Doctors Without Borders is given in response to all kinds of disasters, such as famines, earthquakes, and wars. The people who belong to Doctors Without Borders are experienced medical workers who volunteer their time, effort, and skills in an attempt to help people who are in need. These volunteers include doctors, nurses, surgeons,anesthetists, laboratory technicians, and other medical workers. There are also some non-medical volunteers who work for Doctors Without Borders in positions ofadministration or logistics. Volunteers must first take a course before participating in a humanitarian mission. They promise to abide by a code of professional ethics, and they promise to remain neutral in any conflicts within a disaster area. A mission typically lasts about six months, but the duration varies. The volunteers are insured by the organization, but they are not paid in any way for their work. When Doctors Without Borders began in 1971, it consisted of only a few French doctors who wanted to provide humanitarian aid to people in disaster areas. Over the years, it grew rapidly, and by 2001, Doctors Without Borders had 2500 volunteers working in 80 countries around the world. They have helped people by providing emergency health care, vaccinations, medicine, water, and basic food, and also by developing improved water and sanitation systems. In many areas, Doctors Without Borders has also helped to provide basic medical training to local people. Although Doctors Without Borders remains neutral in any conflicts within a disaster area, the organization does speak out against abuses of human rights. By remaining independent of the influence of governments and corporations, Doctors Without Borders is able to criticize the people and organizations who cause suffering. The volunteers are witnesses who tell the world about the cruelty that isinflicted upon innocent people. Obviously, the work of Doctors Without Borders is extremely important. The volunteers of this organization are brave and selfless people whose efforts haverelieved the suffering of millions of people.
Belgium
a country in northwest Europe between France and Germany. Population: 10,259,000 (2001). Capital: Brussels.
—
humanitarian
concerned with improving bad living conditions and preventing unfair treatment of people
humanitarian aid/assistance/relief
Humanitarian aid is being sent to the refugees.
humanitarian grounds/reasons/purposes
He was released from prison on humanitarian grounds.
—
strike
▶SOMETHING BAD HAPPENS◀
[intransitive and transitive] if something bad strikes, it suddenly happens or suddenly begins to affect someone
The plague struck again for the third time that century.
Everything seemed to be going fine when suddenly disaster struck .
—
disaster
a sudden event such as a flood, storm, or accident which causes great damage or suffering
ￚsee also catastrophe
One hundred and twenty people died in China’s worst air disaster .
the economic consequences of the Chernobyl nuclear disaster
disaster for
The oil spill was a disaster for Alaskan sea animals.
The 1987 hurricane was the worst natural disaster to hit England for decades.
Their expedition nearly ended in disaster , when one of the climbers slid off the mountain.
The drought could spell disaster for wildlife.
Disaster struck when two men were killed during their parachute jumps. The peace process was on the brink of disaster .
Luckily the pilot saw the other plane just in time, and a disaster was narrowly averted .
natural disasters like earthquake and flood
their invasion of Iran was a great disaster
an atomic war would be the final disaster to the world
—
fundamental
relating to the most basic and important parts of something
We have to tackle the fundamental cause of the problem.
fundamental change/difference/distinction/shift etc
a fundamental difference in opinion
fundamental mistake/error
Novice programmers sometimes make fundamental errors.
the fundamental principles of liberty and equality
—
regardless
without being affected or influenced by something
regardless of
The law requires equal treatment for all, regardless of race, religion, or sex.
—
race
one of the main groups that humans can be divided into according to the colour of their skin and other physical features
ￚsee also ethnic group
The school welcomes children of all races .
a person of mixed race
The law forbids discrimination on the grounds of race or religion.
ￚsee also human race
—
ethnicity
—
famine
a situation in which a large number of people have little or no food for a long time and many people die
the great potato famine in Ireland severe/widespread famine Widespread famine had triggered a number of violent protests.A million people are facing famine
—
volunteer
to offer to do something without expecting any reward, often something that other people do not want to do
to offer (one’s services or help) without payment or reward; make a willing offer, esp. when others are unwilling:
He volunteered for guard duty.
Jenny volunteered to clear up afterwards.
I volunteered my services as a driver
—
volunteer (N)
a person who has volunteered or is willing to volunteer: This work costs us nothing; it’s all done by volunteers. | Can I have a volunteer to collect the glasses?
—
anesthetist
a doctor who gives an anesthetic to a patient
anesthetic
a substance that produces an inability to feel pain, either in a limited area (local anesthetic) or in the whole body, together with unconsciousness (general anesthetic):
The patient was under an anesthetic when the operation was performed.
—
laboratory
a special room or building in which a scientist does tests or prepares substances
a research laboratory
laboratory tests/experiments/studies
tests on laboratory animals
ￚsee also language laboratory
—
administration
the management or direction of the affairs of a business, government, etc.:
the administration of the law | You will need some experience in administration before you can run the department.
—
logistics
the practical arrangements that are needed in order to make a plan that involves a lot of people and equipment successful
the day-to-day logistics involved with mining
logistics of
the logistics of travelling with small children
the logistics of supplying food to all the famine areas were very complex
—
mission
—
abide by something
phrasal verb
to accept and obey a decision, rule, agreement etc, even though you may not agree with it
You have to abide by the referee’s decision.
Another Source
1 to obey exactly or remain faithful to (laws, promises, etc.): If you join the club you must abide by its rules. | to abide by a treaty
2 to accept without complaint:You must abide by the consequences of your decision.
—
code
a collection of laws or rules:
the Napoleonic Code
the French civil code
Each state in the US has a different criminal and civil code.
The judge ruled that there had been no breach of the code .
There were plans to introduce a dress code (=rules about what to wear) for civil servants.
code of conduct/behaviour/ethics
the strict code of conduct that is so much a part of karate code of practice (=a set of rules that people in a particular business or profession agree to obey)
The Textile Services Association has drawn up a code of practice endorsed by the Office of Fair Trading.
—
ethic
ethics[plural]moral rules or principles of behaviour for deciding what is right and wrong
a report on the ethics of gene therapy
professional/business/medical ethics (=the moral rules relating to a particular profession)
public concern about medical ethics
Televised news is based on a code of ethics .
—
neutral
▶IN AN ARGUMENT ETC◀
not supporting any of the people or groups involved in an argument or disagreement
I always tried to remain neutral when they started arguing.
Clive decided to adopt a neutral position.
The British government acted as a neutral observer during the talks.
—
conflict
a state of disagreement or argument between opposing groups or opposing ideas or principles; opposition:
The two parties have been in conflict since the election.
The governor’s refusal to apply the law brought him into conflict with the federal government.
the conflict between religion and science
conflict over
conflicts over wage settlements
conflict between
the conflict between tradition and innovation
in conflict (with somebody)
normal kids who are in conflict with their parents
political/social/industrial conflict
social and political conflict in the 1930s
the threat of industrial conflict in the coalfields
Marx points out the potential conflicts below the surface of society.
His views on the literal truth of the Bible brought him into conflict with other Christian leaders.
Doctors exercise considerable power and often come into conflict with politicians.
a lawyer specializing in conflict resolution
—
mission
—
typically
usually
SalamZaban typically get around 100 emails a day.
—
insure
to buy insurance so that you will receive money if something bad happens to you, your family, your possessions etc
Have you insured the contents of your home?
insure (something/somebody) against loss/damage/theft/sickness etc
It is wise to insure your property against storm damage.
insure something for £1000/$2000 etc
You should insure the painting for at least £100,000.
—
consist of something phrasal verb
to be formed from two or more things or people
The buffet consisted of several different Indian dishes.
consist mainly/largely/primarily of somebody/something
The audience consisted mainly of teenagers.
consist entirely/solely of somebody/something
The area does not consist entirely of rich people, despite popular belief.
—
sanitation
the protection of public health by removing and treating waste, dirty water etc
Overcrowding and poor sanitation are common problems in prisons.
—
speak out phrasal verb
to publicly speak in protest about something, especially when protesting could be dangerous
speak out about/against
Five students who had spoken out against the regime were arrested.
Will no one speak out against the tyranny of this government?
they bravely spoke out against slavery
—
cruelty
behaviour or actions that deliberately cause pain to people or animals
ￚopposite kindness
The children had suffered cruelty and neglect.
There was a hint of cruelty in Brian’s smile.
cruelty to
cruelty to animals
cruelty of
the cruelty of the slave trade
The deliberate cruelty of his words cut her like a knife.
the cruelties of war
they suffered torture and other cruelties
—
inflict
to force (something or someone unpleasant or unwanted) on someone:
The judge inflicted the severest possible penalty.
Don’t inflict your ridiculous ideas on me!
Mary has inflicted the children on her mother for the weekend.
we inflicted heavy casualties on the enemy
he enjoys inflicting pain on others
inflict something on/upon somebody
The strikes inflicted serious damage on the economy.
Detectives warned that the men could inflict serious injury.
—
selfless
caring only for others and not for oneself; completely unselfish: selfless devotion to duty
selfless devotion to their work
a selfless mother
a selfless act relieve
to lessen (pain, anxiety, or trouble):
a drug that relieves headaches
Another Source
▶PAIN◀
to reduce someone’s pain or unpleasant feelings
ￚsee also relief
Drugs helped to relieve the pain.
relieve tension/pressure/stress etc
Some people eat for comfort, to relieve their anxieties.
a pill that relieves pain
to relieve suffering
to relieve famine in Africa
we must relieve the hardships of the refugies
Chicago is one of the most famous American cities. Some cities in the United States-such as New York, Los Angeles, and San Francisco-may be more glamorous, but many people agree that Chicago is the city that best represents the United States. Located in the middle of North America, Chicago has derived much benefit from its geography. The city’s central location has made its O’Hare International Airport the “hub” for most airlines in the United States. Its location on the shores of Lake Michigan has made it a major port and business centre, where the agricultural and industrial products of the American Midwest are shipped overseas. Until about the 1830s, Chicago was a minor trading post. But then it grew rapidly as the most important town in the rapidly developing areas of the midwestern United States. In 1871, the city was destroyed by a fire. It is often said that the fire started when a cow knocked over an oil lamp. It took about 20 years for the city to be completely rebuilt, but it continued to expand. In 1882, the first skyscraper was built in Chicago. Around the turn of the century, the population of Chicago was growing quickly. Many African-American people moved to Chicago from the southern United States, and many immigrants from Eastern Europe also arrived in Chicago during this time. Because of the busy and active atmosphere of the city, an American poet described Chicago as “the city of broad shoulders.” Chicago became notorious for organized crime during the Prohibition Era of the 1920s, when the sale of alcohol was illegal. Mobsters such as Al Capone became rich by smuggling liquor, and many people were killed in conflicts between rival gangs of criminals. But the influence of organized crime later became weaker. In the decades following World War Two, Chicago experienced some problems with crime, poverty, and racial conflict. However, the city has recently prospered, and social conditions have improved for many people in Chicago. Compared with other large cities, Chicago is viewed as an affordable place to live, with a high quality of life. The city has efficient transportation, and many beautiful parks along the Lake Michigan shoreline. Chicago is famous for its many attractions, including the Art Institute of Chicago, the Field Museum of Natural History, the Shedd Aquarium, the Sears Tower, and the “Miracle Mile” shopping district. Indeed, Chicago is one of the most interesting cities in the United States.
glamorous:
attractive, exciting, and related to wealth and success
She led an exciting and glamorous life.
the most glamorous neighborhood in the city
a glamorous actress
On television, she looks so glamorous.
a glamorous woman
Being in publishing/in the theater isn’t as glamorous as some people think.
—
derive:
to get something, especially an advantage or a pleasant feeling, from something
derive something from something
Medically, we will derive great benefit from this technique.
derive pleasure/enjoyment etc
Many students derived enormous satisfaction from the course.
Another Source
derive from (phr v)
(=derive sthg. from sbdy./sthg.) to obtain (esp. something non-material) from:
He derives a lot of pleasure from meeting new people.
—
hub:
the central and most important part of an area, system, activity etc, which all the other parts are connected to
ￚsynonym centre
hub of
*Birmingham is at the hub of Britain’s motorway network.
*the commercial hub of the region
*gradually New York became the literary and artistic hub of America
*Chicago is a railway hub
*For him, his department is the hub of the universe.
—
shore:
the land along the edge of a large area of water such as an ocean or lake
We could see a boat about a mile from shore.
Only a few survivors reached the shore.
She began to swim to shore.
on the shores of something
a holiday resort on the shores of the Adriatic
on shore
We had a couple of hours on shore (=not on a ship) .
off shore
The island is about 3 miles off shore (=away from the coast) .
—
port:
a place where ships can be loaded and unloaded
be in port
We’ll have two days ashore while the ship is in port.
come into port/leave port The ferry was about to leave port.
—
Midwest:
the Midwest
the central area of the United States
ￚMidwestern adjective
—
trading post:
a place where people can buy and exchange goods in a country area, especially in the US or Canada in the past
a remote trading post in the Yukon
—
immigrant:
someone who enters another country to live there permanently
ￚsee also emigrant
an illegal immigrant
a new wave of immigrants from the Middle East
—
notorious:
famous or well-known for something bad
ￚsynonym infamousa
notorious computer hackernotorious cases of human rights abuses
notorious for
a judge notorious for his cruelty and corruption
a notorious murderer
This airport is notorious for its bad security.
a notorious gambler
one of the most notorious government prisons
his escape with the mayor’s daughter made him notorious throughout the region
—
Prohibition Era:
the period from 1919 to 1933 in the US when the making, sale, and TRANSPORT of alcoholic drinks was forbidden by law. It was impossible to make people obey the law and there was a lot of criminal activity.
Prohibition is the subject of many movies.
—see also BOOTLEG, SPEAKEASY
See this pictures too:
—
Mobster:
a GANGSTER
—
smuggling:
the crime of taking something illegally from one country to another
He was arrested in connection with drug smuggling.
—
liquor
1
especially American English a strong alcoholic drink such as whisky
ￚsynonym spirit
ￚsee also liqueur
2
British English technical any alcoholic drink
—
conflict:
fighting or a war
armed/military/violent conflict For years the region has been torn apart by armed conflicts.UN troops intervened to avert a threat of violent conflict.efforts to resolve the conflict
—
rival:
a person, group, or organization with whom one competes:
ￚsynonym competitor
Who will be his main rival in the presidential election? | Bob and I were friendly rivals for the job/rivals in love. | These two companies are arch-rivals (=very great rivals) in the computer industry. | a clash between rival football supporters
This gives the company a competitive advantage over its rivals.
rival for
his chief rival for the job
He finished 39 seconds ahead of his main rival .
She was 2 minutes faster than her nearest rival .
a game against their old rivals , Manchester United
They still remain bitter rivals (=hate each other) .
Their sales have now overtaken those of their arch-rival (=main or strongest rival) .
rival company/firm/team etc
She left her job and went to work for a rival company.
who is her rival in the upcoming elections?
rivals in love
these two teams have been rivals for years
plastics are gradually becoming rivals of metals
—
Gang:
a group of criminals: The gang was planning a robbery. | the leader of the James Gang
Several gangs were operating in the area. Armed gangs have hijacked lorries.
gang of
a gang of smugglers
—
prosper:
to develop favorably or in a healthy way; grow well;THRIVE:
The children seem to be prospering under their care.
—
shoreline:
the land along the edge of a large area of water such as an ocean or lake
A group of men stood silently on the shoreline.
the bay’s 13000 km of shoreline
In most countries today, people think it is obvious that all adults should have the right to vote in democratic elections. But it was not so long ago that women did not have this right. Only after a long struggle did women gain the right to vote. By the early nineteenth century, modern democratic forms of government were appearing in the United States, Great Britain, and some European countries. In these countries, most adult men had the right to vote in democratic elections. Some men were denied this right if they were poor or if they belonged to a racial minoritygroup, but gradually this right was extended to all men. It took much longer for women to gain the right to vote. Only in special cases, such as that of a widow who owned land, could a woman be allowed to vote. Many men believed that it was not necessary for women to vote, because they assumed that the husband should decide on behalf of his wife. Some men believed that women did not possess the intelligence or the discipline to vote carefully. Some women also believed that women should not be involved in politics, but many others wanted the right to vote. By about the year 1850, some women began to organize in an effort to change the laws regarding women and the vote. This movement was known as the “womansuffrage” movement, because the word “suffrage” means voting. Leaders such as Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton brought attention to this issue, and persuaded many people that women should vote. The first part of the United States to recognize women’s right to vote was Wyoming, in the year 1869. During the following decades, many other states recognized women’s right to vote, particularly in the western part of the country, where women had a high social status. However, the United States was not the first country to recognize women’s right to vote at the national level. The first country to recognize women’s right to vote was New Zealand, in 1893. Soon after, Australia also allowed women to vote, and so did the Scandinavian countries of northern Europe. But in countries such as the United States, Canada, and Great Britain, women could not yet vote. Women in those countries struggled to gain the vote. For example, in Great Britain, Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughters participated in hunger strikes. During World War One (1914-1918), women’s work efforts were very important to winning the war, and people’s attitudes were increasingly in favor of women having the right to vote. Women then gained the right to vote in Canada, the United States, and Great Britain. Gradually, other democracies around the world also recognized women’s right to vote. Today, it seems difficult to believe that women were not allowed to vote only a few generations ago. But there is still progress to be made. In most countries, women are under-represented among political leaders. Perhaps the day will soon come when women are elected as often as men.
deny:
to refuse to give or allow: Permission to enter was denied. [+obj(i)+obj(d)] I was denied the chance of going to college when my parents’ business collapsed and they lost everything they owned.
—
minority:
a group of people of a different race, religion etc from most other people in that country
People from ethnic minorities often face prejudice and discrimination.
the very large Russian minorities in Ukraine and Moldova
children from minority groups
the teaching of minority languages in schools
minority leader/businessman/student etc
American English a school with a high proportion of minority students
—
extend:
fml to give or offer (help,sympathy, friendship, etc.) to someone
extend something to somebody
We’d like to extend a warm welcome to our French visitors.
I’d like to extend my thanks to all the catering staff.
The Coroner extended his sympathy to the victim’s family.
The Headteacher has extended an invitation to the Prime Minister to visit the school.
The banks have decided to extend credit to the company (=allow them to borrow more money) .
—
behalf:
on behalf of somebody
also in behalf of somebody
American English
for, in the interests of, or as the representative of (someone else)
On behalf of everyone here, I’d like to thank our special guest for his entertaining speech. | The President can’t be here today, so I’m going to speak on his behalf.
She asked the doctor to speak to her parents on her behalf.
On behalf of everyone here, may I wish you a very happy retirement.
Oh, don’t go to any trouble on my behalf.
—
discipline:
—
suffrage:
the right to vote in national elections
women did not have the suffrage
CULTURAL NOTE In the US, African-Americans were given the right to vote in 1868 by the 14th Amendment to the CONSTITUTION. Women were given suffrage in 1920 by the 19th Amendment: When was universal suffrage (=the right of everyone to vote) introduced in your country?
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hunger strike:
a situation in which someone refuses to eat for a long time in order to protest about something
300 students occupied the building and over 50 went on hunger strike .
ￚhunger striker noun [countable]
—
Attitude:
a complex mental state involving beliefs and feelings and values
—
under-represented
underrepresent
to represent in numbers that are fewer, or in a proportion that is less, than is statistically expected or warranted
In most societies, women are grossly underrepresented in government.
Charles Dickens is considered one of the greatest writers in the history of English literature. Dickens wrote his many novels during the nineteenth century, but those novels remain popular even today. Literary experts admire his genius at describing the lives and personalities of the many characters in his books.Charles Dickens was born in England in 1812. His father was a clerk who worked for the Navy. Unfortunately, his father was not good at managing money, and the family soon went deeply into debt. In those days, people who owed money were sent to prison, and their families were sent to places called “workhouses.”
When Charles’s father was unable to pay the debts, Charles was sent to a workhouse, where he had to work long hours, and Charles’s father was sent to prison. After a few years, the family regained its freedom, but the experience had a lasting effect upon Charles. As a young man, Charles Dickens worked as a journalist in the law courts and in Parliament. But he soon began writing stories for newspapers. These stories were very popular with the readers. Soon, Dickens began writing entire novels for the newspapers. Each month, the newspaper would publish another chapter of Dickens’s latest novel. One of Dickens’s most famous early novels is called Oliver Twist. This is the story of a young man who is poor and alone in the city of London, and becomesinvolved in criminal activities to support himself. The characters in this novel have a very wide range of personalities, but seem very real to the reader. This bookexposed the conditions that faced the poor people of London, and helped to encourage reforms aimed at improving those conditions. Perhaps Dickens’s most popular novel is A Christmas Carol. In this story, a rich butstingy old man, Ebenezer Scrooge, refuses to give his employee a day off work at Christmas, and refuses to donate money to help the poor. But, while sleeping, Scrooge is visited by ghosts from his past, present and future. These ghosts show Scrooge how badly he has behaved. When Scrooge wakes up, he becomes a kind and generous man who fully appreciates the spirit of the Christmas holiday. Another famous novel of Dickens is A Tale of Two Cities. This is a story of the violence and upheaval during the French Revolution. The story is famous for theheroic act of sacrifice that is made by one character for the benefit of the others. Dickens was famous as a public speaker, and large crowds assembled to hear his performances. When he died in 1870, he was a very famous man.
The novels of Charles Dickens allow the reader to experience the life of nineteenth century London, showing the poverty and injustice that were so common. The characters of these novels show the range of human behaviour, from cruelty and selfishness to kindness and love. It is no surprise that Dickens is viewed as one of the great figures of English literature.
debt
when you owe money to someone
ￚopposite credit
in debt (to somebody)
Nearly half the students said they were in debt.
The band will be in debt to the record company for years.
£200/$1000 etc in debt
A rash business decision left him $600 in debt.
get/run/fall etc into debt
The club sank deeper into debt .
be heavily/deeply in debt (=owe a lot of money)
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involve
(of a situation or action) to have as the people or things taking part: The accident involved a bus and a truck. | a big police operation involving over a hundred officers.
—
expose
▶SHOW◀
to show something that is usually covered or hidden
He lifted his T-shirt to expose a jagged scar across his chest.
expose something to something
Potatoes turn green when exposed to light.
—
reform
a change or changes made to a system or organization in order to improve it
reform of
a reform of the legal system
economic/political/educational reform
The government announced a much-needed programme of economic reform.
Reforms were made to revive the economy.
far-reaching/sweeping/radical reforms
The Prime Minister is calling for sweeping reforms of the NHS.
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stingy
nformal not generous, especially with money
ￚsynonym mean
She’s too stingy to give money to charity.
—
spirit
—
upheaval
a very big change that often causes problems
political upheaval Moving house is a major upheaval .
—
heroic
extremely brave or determined, and admired by many people
ￚsynonym courageous
her heroic efforts to save her family
Lawrence’s heroic struggle against his destiny.
She portrayed him as a heroic figure .
—
assemble
to gather or collect together into a group or into one place:
At the beginning of the day, we all assemble in the auditorium to be addressed by the principal. | He called us all together, and told the assembled company (=the group that had assembled) that the exams had been canceled. | to assemble a vast collection of old books
A large crowd had assembled outside the American embassy.
He looked around at the assembled company (=all the people who had come there) .
She had assembled a collection of her favourite songs.
Mark Twain was the author of some of the greatest works of American English literature, such as Tom Sawyer, Life on the Mississippi, and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. Mark Twain’s real name was Samuel Langhorne Clemens. He used Mark Twain as his “pen name“. Samuel Clemens was born in the American state of Missouri in 1835. As a child he enjoyed many outdoor activities, such as swimming and fishing. When Samuel was eleven years old, his father died, and he began working to help support his family. As a young man, Samuel Clemens began to write stories for newspapers. However, he took a job working as a navigator on the steamboats that travelled up and down the Mississippi River. Clemens greatly enjoyed this period of his life, during which time he gained much knowledge about life on the river. He also learned much about human behaviour by observing the many people on the boats and along the river. It was as a result of this time that Clemens began using his pen name, Mark Twain. This name is taken from a term that was used by the men who worked on the river. It is used to describe water that is just deep enough to be navigated safely. The earliest of Mark Twain’s really famous novels was The Adventures of Tom Sawyer. This novel describes a boy who engages in much mischief, but who has a kind heart. The story contains several scenes that are quite funny. In one of these, Tom is working at the boring task of painting a fence. He persuades several other boys to help him, by pretending that painting the fence is a fun and enjoyable activity. Another famous novel by Mark Twain was Life on the Mississippi. This book describes many interesting characters similar to those that Twain actually observed while working on a steamboat. This story gives the reader a vivid image of the people who lived and worked along the Mississippi River. Probably the best novel by Mark Twain was The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. This novel tells the story of a boy who runs away from his violent father. The boy, whose name is Huckleberry Finn, is joined in his escape by a man named Jim. Jim is a slave who has decided to run away from his owners. Huck and Jim travel north along the Mississippi, hoping to reach the areas where slavery is not allowed. In this story, the reader can experience the moral sense of Huckleberry, who must make several important decisions during the escape. Mark Twain died in 1910, after writing many more novels and many stories of his travels around the world. Twain’s works are still widely read today. His books are appreciated for their humor, for their interesting descriptions of life in nineteenth century America, and for showing both the good and evil that people can do. Many critics consider Twain to have been the greatest American writer.
pen name
a name used by a writer instead of their real name
ￚsynonym pseudonym
—
navigator
an officer on a ship or aircraft who plans which way it should go when it is travelling from one place to another
—
navigate
to sail along a river or other area of water
The river is too dangerous to navigate.
—
engage
to be doing or to become involved in an activity
engage in/on/upon
Only 10% of American adults engage in regular exercise.
The two parties engaged upon an escalating political struggle.
Mr Armstrong was engaged in prayer.
engage in doing something
Despite her illness, she remains actively engaged in shaping policy.
—
mischief
bad behaviour, especially by children, that causes trouble or damage, but no serious harm
Now run along, and don’t get into mischief .
They’ve got enough toys to keep them out of mischief for a while.
If you can’t see Nick, you can be sure he’s up to some mischief (=behaving badly and causing trouble or damage) .
where did you hide my book, you mischief?
getting into mischief | She suspected the children were up to some mischief and she found them in the garden digging up the flowers. | We allowed the children to watch a movie on television, to keep them out of mischief.
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persuade
—
vivid
that produces sharp clear pictures in the mind; lifelike: a vivid description/dream | “I think he’s married to two women.” “Nonsense! You’ve got a vivid imagination!”
—
The Caribbean Sea is the large body of water thatlies north of the northern tip of South America. Within the Caribbean sea are many islands that have played an important role in the history and culture of the Western hemisphere. By far the largest island in the Caribbean is Cuba. Cuba was formerly a colony of Spain, but became independent in 1902. Cuba became a Communist country in 1959, when a revolution overthrew an unpopular government. After the revolution, many Cubans fled to the United States. Today, the American city of Miami, in the state of Florida, has been greatly influenced by Cuban culture. Tobacco is widely grown in Cuba, and the country is famous for the cigars that are produced in the capital city, Havana. The island of Hispaniola is located just east of Cuba. This island is divided into two countries. In the west is Haiti, where the people speak a variety of the French language that has been influenced by African languages. In the east is the Dominican Republic, where the people speak Spanish. Another important Caribbean island is Puerto Rico. This was previously a Spanish colony, but it is now governed by the United States. Many people from Puerto Rico have moved to the mainland United States, especially the New York area. In many other islands in the Caribbean, English is the main language. The largest of these islands is Jamaica, which is located just south of Cuba. Most Jamaicans are the descendants of African people who were brought to work as slaves on sugar plantations. Jamaica is famous as the birthplace of the style of music called “reggae,” which was popularized in other countries by Bob Marley, a famous Jamaican musician. Another important English-speaking Caribbean island is Trinidad. This island is located just north of South America. The population of Trinidad is very diverse. The largest groups of people are descended from people who came from Africa and India, but there are many other nationalities also. Trinidad is famous for a style of music known as “calypso,” and for musicians who produce pleasant sounds by playing steel drums. There are also many other, smaller islands in the Caribbean, each with its own unique features. Many of these islands possess fine beaches, and are popular tourist destinations. The warm weather of the Caribbean makes it a popular place for North Americans who must live through cold winters!
lie
▶PLACE◀
if a town, village, etc lies in a particular place, it is in that place
The town lies in a small wooded valley. The Tasman Sea lies between Tasmania and Australia. —
hemisphere
a half of the Earth, esp. the northern or southern halves above and below the EQUATOR, or the eastern or western half: What is the largest city in the southern hemisphere? —
overthrow
to remove a leader or government from power, especially by force
ￚsynonym oust
Rebels were already making plans to overthrow the government.
the overthrow of monarchy
the Arabs overthrew the Sassanians —
flee
past tense and past participle fled
to escape (from) by hurrying away, esp. because one is afraid:
His attackers turned and fled.
Masaari spent six months in prison before fleeing the country .
flee to/from/into
Many German artists fled to America at the beginning of World War II.
The spectators fled in panic when the bull got loose. | We were forced to flee the country. (=go abroad for safety) they were fleeing the police
—
descendant
someone (or animal) who is related to a person (or animal) who lived a long time ago, or to a family, group of people etc that existed in the past
ￚsee also ancestor
somebody’s descendants/the descendants of somebody The coastal areas were occupied by the descendants of Greek colonists.
He was a direct descendant of Napoleon Bonaparte.
—
plantation
a large area of land in a hot country, where crops such as tea, cotton, and sugar are grown
a rubber plantation
a sugar-cane plantation
Look at this examples —
reggae
a kind of popular music originally from Jamaica, with a strong regular beat —
popularize
to make something well known and liked
Bob Marley popularized reggae music in the 1970s.
Reggae music was popularized by Bob Marley in the 1970s. —
diverse
very different from each other
subjects as diverse as pop music and archaeology
ￚdiversely adverb —
calypso
a type of Caribbean song based on subjects of interest in the news
—
drum
The first people who lived in North America were the Indians. The name “Indians” is actually not very accurate, because the people are not from India. But when the first Europeans came to North America, they mistakenly believed that they had reached India, so they referred to the people as Indians. In different parts of North America, the Indians had very different cultures and very different ways of making a living. On the west coast of North America, many large rivers flow into the Pacific Ocean. In these rivers is an abundance of fish, such as salmon. The Indians in these areas obtained much of their food by fishing. They lived insettled villages, and became experts in carving wood from the tall trees of the area. They carved large canoes for traveling on the rivers and oceans, and they also carved tall “totem poles.” Totem poles were carvings of various animal or human figures, and often the poles had a mythical or spiritual significance for the people who carved them. Many beautiful totem poles can be seen in cities such as Vancouver or Victoria, in the Canadian state of British Columbia; or Seattle, in the American state of Washington. The Plains Indians lived in the central prairie of North America. The various nations of the Plains lived by hunting large animals called buffalo, or bison. Horses were brought to North America in the sixteenth century by the Spanish. The Indians who lived in the prairie areas had learned to become experts at riding horses, and on horseback they could hunt the giant herds of bison. They followed the buffalo from place to place. The Plains Indians lived in portable houses called “teepees,” which were made by sewing together buffalo skins, and holding them in place with wooden poles. In the southwestern United States, some Indians lived by farming. In this dry area, the Indians raised several crops, such as corn, beans, and squash. Many of the Indians in these areas lived in large settlements, where the houses were made from stone or dried mud. The people were experts at weaving, and they madeclothing and blankets that had beautiful artistic designs. Near the eastern coast of North America, many Indians lived by a combination of farming and hunting. These people lived in fortified villages, some of which wereinhabited for many years at a time. In some places, they built large earthworks that can still be seen today. In the forests of northern Canada, the Indians lived primarily by hunting, fishing, and gathering. Like the Indians of the prairie regions, they often moved from place to place in search of game animals to hunt. Today, the Indians of North America no longer live in their traditional ways. However, several Indian languages are still spoken by many thousands of people. Also, many Indians in the United States and Canada are very interested inmaintaining the cultural traditions of their ancestors.
Indian
a NATIVE AMERICAN
CULTURAL NOTE Native Americans have often been shown, esp. in movies, as cruel and warlike people, although recently books and movies have tried to show them more favorably and to present their point of view. Most Native Americans suffered greatly from European settlers moving onto their lands, and fought to defend themselves and their way of life; this is still happening in parts of S America. In N America Native Americans were forced to leave their lands and live on RESERVATIONs (=areas of land set aside for them). Most still live on reservations, and many are very poor and have problems resulting from unemployment and drinking alcohol. Many tribes are working to improve conditions on the reservations, and some are also trying to bring back old customs and religious practices.
USAGE Native American is now the preferred and usual term. American Indian and Amerindian are still used, esp. in referring to Native Americans from S America. Red Indian and red man are old-fashioned and usu. considered offensive.
—
mistaken
be mistaken
if you are mistaken, you are wrong about something that you thought you knew or saw
It can’t have been my car. You must be mistaken.
I thought he said 12 o’clock, but I might have been mistaken.
We bought the rug in Turkey, if I’m not mistaken .
mistakenly adv
Another Source
(of a person) wrong; having understood incorrectly: I think you must be mistaken about seeing him at the theater; I’m sure he’s been overseas all week. | Unless I’m (very much) mistaken, that’s my watch you’re wearing!
—
abundance
a large quantity of something, plenty
abundance of
an abundance of wavy red hair
in abundance
One quality the team possessed in abundance was fighting spirit.
At the party there was food and drink in abundance.
The country has an abundance of skilled workers, but not enough jobs
an abundance of mineral resources
—
salmon / ˈsæmən /
a large fish with silver skin and pink flesh that lives in the sea but swims up rivers to lay its eggs
to go fishing for salmon
canned salmon
smoked salmon sandwiches
—
totem pole
a tall wooden pole with one or more totems cut or painted on it, made by the Native Americans of northwest North America
—
prairie /ˈpreri /
a wide open area of fairly flat land in North America which is covered in grass or wheat
Search for more examples on
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bison
an animal like a large cow with hair on its head and shoulders
—
horseback
on horseback (riding) on a horse: Police on horseback broke up the demonstration.
—
herd
a group of animals of one kind that live and feed together
ￚsee also flock
herd of
a herd of cattle herds of elephants
—
teepee
another spelling of tepee
a round tent with a pointed top, used by some Native Americans
—
pole
▶STICK/POST◀
a long stick or post usually made of wood or metal, often set upright in the ground to support something
a telephone pole
—
settlement
a group of houses and buildings where people live, especially in a place where few people have lived before
The railway stations created new settlements.
an early Iron Age settlement
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clothing
the clothes that people wear
the basic necessities such as food and clothing
warm/outdoor/waterproof etc clothing
Lab workers must wear protective clothing.
item/article/piece of clothing
She took only a few items of clothing.
Remember to bring a change of clothing .
clothing manufacturer/industry/trade etc
a clothing store
—
fortified
fortify verb
to build towers, walls etc around an area or city in order to defend it :
The town was heavily fortified.
—
inhabit verb
if animals or people inhabit an area or place, they live there SYN live :
The woods are inhabited by many wild animals.
inhabited islands
—
earthwork
a large long pile of earth, used in the past to stop attacks
Another Source
a man-made bank of earth used esp. formerly as a protection against enemy attack.
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maintaining
to continue to have, do, etc., as before; KEEP up: He took the lead, and maintained it until the end of the race. | I hope you will maintain your recent improvement. | Part of her job is to maintain good relations with our suppliers.
Careers Officers maintain contact with young people when they have left school. Britain wants to maintain its position as a world power. A lot depends on building and maintaining a good relationship with your customers. The hotel prides itself on maintaining high standards. How can we maintain control of spending?
During the summer of 1914, many people in Europe felt very optimistic about the future. Modern technology was improving people’s lives. Political freedom was gradually increasing in many countries. New artistic styles and scientific discoveries were being made. But later that summer, a terrible war began. In the early twentieth century, the various countries of Europe competed with each other in an attempt to be the most powerful country on the continent. In each country, many of the political leaders wanted to control more land, more people, and more resources. The First World War began when the archduke of Austria-Hungary wasassassinated. Austria-Hungary wanted to punish the assassin, who was from the small country of Serbia. This led to a serious dispute, and soon other countries were involved. Within a few weeks, a war had begun. On one side were Germany and Austria-Hungary, and on the other side were Russia, France, and Britain. The people in these countries at first welcomed the news of a war. Many people were intensely patriotic, and supported the war effort without thinking carefully about the reasons for the war. Some people thought that war would bring adventure and glory to their lives, and they cheered enthusiastically in the streets. After the war started, it soon became clear that it was a terrible disaster. In the western part of Europe, the opposing sides fought many bloody battles. Soldiers on both sides lived in filthy trenches that had been dug out of the ground. Sometimes, hundreds of thousands of men were killed in battles that lasted only a few days. In most cases, these battles did not result in large gains or losses of territory. The war continued for more than four years. When the war was finally over, millions of people had been killed. Many people realized that their eagerness to fight against other countries had led them into a great disaster. This disaster did not end when the war ended in 1918. During the next thirty years, there would be many violent revolutions in Europe, and a second major war that would be even worse than the first. Today, people in most European countries no longer view other nations as enemies. They have no interest in fighting wars with their neighbours. Instead, they are interested in trading with the other countries, and in visiting those countries as tourists. The lessons of the twentieth century have reminded people that wars can have terrible consequences.
optimistic
believing that good things will happen in the future
ￚopposite pessimistic
optimistic about
Bankers are cautiously optimistic about the country’s economic future.
optimistic (that)
We are still relatively optimistic that the factory can be saved.
Andrew took a more optimistic view. search this word on:
—
artistic
relating to art or culture
artistic work Opinion about the artistic merit of his paintings has been mixed. —
continent
a large mass of land surrounded by sea
the continents of Asia and Africa —
archduke
a royal prince, esp. of the royal family of Austria in former times: Archduke Charles
—
Austria-Hungary
look at this article:
—
assassinate
to murder an important or famous person, especially for political reasons
a plot to assassinate the President
the man who assassinated Nasseredin Shah check this article:
—
assassin
someone who murders an important person
Kennedy’s assassin is assumed to have been Lee Harvey Oswald. Although the assassins were never caught, it is commonly believed that they were working for the government.
His assassins must have been aware of his security arrangements.
—
dispute
a serious argument or disagreement
dispute with
The firm is involved in a legal dispute with a rival company.
dispute over
He got into a dispute over a taxi fare.
Every effort was made to settle the dispute , but without success.
dispute between
the bitter border dispute between the countries
A long-running pay dispute is disrupting rail services.
The coal industry was plagued by industrial disputes .
The police don’t usually like to intervene in domestic disputes .
The miners were in dispute with their employers over pay.
A dispute arose over who was to be the next king. —
intense
intense activity is very serious, uses a lot of effort, and often involves doing a great deal in a very short time
The job demands intense concentration.
At least 3000 people were killed in a week of intense fighting.
ￚintensely adverb He disliked Kate intensely. —
glory the importance, honour, and praise that people give someone they admire a lot :
She dreamt of future glory as an Olympic champion.
Goran’s moment of glory came when he defeated Rafter.
He began the season in a blaze of glory , scoring seven goals in as many games. —
enthusiastic
feeling or showing a lot of interest and excitement about something
enthusiastic about (doing) something
All the staff are enthusiastic about the project.
The singer got an enthusiastic reception. an enthusiastic supporter of reform ￚenthusiastically / -kli / adverb
—
disaster
(a) sudden serious misfortune causing great suffering and damage:
The flood was a terrible disaster.
Hundreds of people died.
The crash was the worst air disaster (=crash of a plane) this year.
Everything was going well, and then suddenly disaster struck. (=something terrible happened)
One hundred and twenty people died in China’s worst air disaster . the economic consequences of the Chernobyl nuclear disaster
disaster for
The oil spill was a disaster for Alaskan sea animals.
The 1987 hurricane was the worst natural disaster to hit England for decades. Their expedition nearly ended in disaster , when one of the climbers slid off the mountain.
The drought could spell disaster for wildlife.
Disaster struck when two men were killed during their parachute jumps.
The peace process was on the brink of disaster .
Luckily the pilot saw the other plane just in time, and a disaster was narrowly averted .
—
filthy
very dirty
The house was filthy, with clothes and newspapers strewn everywhere. —
trenche
a deep ditch dug in the ground as a protection for soldiers:
In the First World War the soldiers fought in trenches the trenches of World War I
— consequence
something that happens as a result of a particular action or set of conditions
consequence of
Many believe that poverty is a direct consequence of overpopulation.
consequence for
Our findings have far-reaching consequences for researchers.
dire/disastrous/serious etc consequences Errors in forecasting can have dire consequences.
with … consequences
He ate some poisonous mushrooms, with fatal consequences.
take/suffer/face the consequences (of something) (=accept the bad results of something you have done)
He broke the law, and now he must face the consequences of his actions.
When historians are asked to choose the greatest Presidents in the history of the United States, one of the names most frequently mentioned is Abraham Lincoln. Lincoln was President during the greatest ordeal that ever faced the United States-the Civil War. Abraham Lincoln was born in 1809 in the state of Kentucky, but when he was a child, the family moved to the state of Indiana. Abraham’s parents, Thomas and Nancy Lincoln, were farmers who were very poor, and they received only a few years of education. When Abraham was only nine years old, his mother became ill and died. About one year later, Abraham’s father remarried. As a young man, Abraham continued to work on the family farm, and he also worked as a laborer. During this time, the Lincolns moved to the state of Illinois. Abraham became known to the local people as an excellent athlete and story-teller. He educated himself by reading many books, most of which he borrowed from neighbours. Lincoln was interested in politics, and when he was in his mid-20s, he was elected to the Illinois state legislature. During this time, Lincoln also studied law, and soon became known as an excellent lawyer. People called Lincoln “Honest Abe” because of his personal integrity. In 1842, Lincoln married a woman named Mary Todd. During the 1850s, Lincoln became strongly opposed the expansion of slavery into the western parts of the United States. Lincoln held several famous debates against a supporter of slavery named Stephen Douglas. In 1860, Lincoln was a candidate in the election for President of the United States. During this election, the issue of slavery and its expansion was very prominent. Lincoln won, but soon after, several of the southern states decided to secede from the United States, and form their own country. A few months later, fighting started between those southern states and the federal government, which was supported by the northern states. Lincoln managed the Civil War with skill and determination. Gradually the North began to win the war. In 1863, Lincoln made the “Emancipation Proclamation,” which freed the slaves. Later that year, Lincoln gave his most famous speech, the Gettysburg Address. The Civil War had brought terrible suffering to many Americans, and people were very bitter after the war. But Lincoln wanted the country to become united again, and he urged people to forgive. However, in April of 1865, only months after the war ended, Lincoln was shot and killed by an assassin. Many people, even Lincoln’s critics, mourned his death. In the generations that have passed since Lincoln’s death, he has continued to be viewed as a great President. Some historians have criticized Lincoln for not being more strongly opposed to slavery, but others have defended him, saying that Lincoln’s approach to the issue was realistic and humane. But nearly all historians agree that Lincoln was an honest and brave leader during the most difficult period in American history.
historian
someone who studies history, or the history of a particular thing
a person who studies history and/or writes about it
art/literary/military etc historian
—
ordeal
a difficult or painful experience:
The parents went through a terrible ordeal when their child was kidnapped.
—
The
used before the name of a family in the plural to refer to all the members of that family
The Johnsons had lived in this house for many years.
—
legislature
an institution or people that has the power to make or change laws
state/national/federal etc
legislature the state legislature of Virginia
—
integrity
strength and firmness of character or principle; honesty; trustworthiness: a man of complete integrity
—
expansion
when something increases in size, range, amount etc
ￚsynonym growth
ￚsee also expand
expansion of
The rapid expansion of cities can cause social and economic problems.
expansion in
an expansion in student numbers
—
debate
a meeting, esp. in public, in which a question is talked about by at least two people or groups, each expressing a different opinion: There was a long debate in the Assembly on the question of capital punishment. | a heated debate
—
prominent
important
a prominent Russian scientist play a prominent part/role (in something) Mandela played a prominent role in the early years of the ANC.The World Cup will have a prominent place on the agenda.
—
secede
if a country or state secedes from another country, it officially stops being part of it and becomes independent
secede from
By 1861, 11 states had seceded from the Union
Bangladesh seceded from Pakistan
—
determination
—
Emancipation Proclamation
an announcement made in the US by President Abraham Lincoln which ordered the end of slavery (=the practice of owning people as property) in the Confederate States (=the southern states of the US) from January 1st 1863. The Proclamation was made during the Civil War. Soon after the war, slavery was completely ended by the “13th Amendment” to the US Constitution.
—
bitter
feeling angry, jealous, and upset because you think you have been treated unfairly
ￚsee also bitterly
bitter about
I feel very bitter about what has happened.
a bitter and vindictive old man
—
urge
to strongly suggest that someone does something
urge somebody to do something
I got a note from Moira urging me to get in touch.
urge that
He urged that a referendum should be held by December.
urge something on/upon somebody
I have urged upon him the need for extreme secrecy.
The charity urged quick action.
—
mourn
to feel very sad and to miss someone after they have died
ￚsynonym grieve for
Hundreds of people gathered to mourn the slain president.
mourn for
They mourned for their children, killed in the war.
mourn somebody’s death/loss/passing
She still mourns the death of her husband.
Another Source
to feel and/or show grief (for), esp. because of someone’s death: The old woman still mourns her son’s death/mourns for her son. | We all mourn the passing of the steam train. (=wish that they had not stopped being used)
they mourned the death of their father
she was mourned by her family as well as by a grateful nation
—
realistic
—
humane
treating people or animals in a way that is not cruel and causes them as little suffering as possible
ￚopposite inhumane
the campaign for the humane treatment of criminalsa better, more humane world
Another Source
showing human kindness, thoughtfulness, and sympathy for the suffering and misfortune of others, etc.: a humane method of killing animals (=one that causes the least possible pain) —opposite inhumane
—
approach
▶METHOD◀
[countable] a method of doing something or dealing with a problem
approach to
a new approach to teaching languages
He decided to adopt a different approach and teach the Bible through story-telling. This book takes an unorthodox approach to art criticism. organizations which take a positive approach to creative thinking
[h=1]Two Great Musicians: Mozart and Beethoven[/h]دریافت فایل صوتی
Much of the music of eighteenth and nineteenth century Europe is still enjoyed by many people. Two of the greatest musicians of that time were born only thirty-four years apart, and actually knew each other for a short time. These great musicians were Mozart and Beethoven. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was born in Austria in the year 1756. As a child, Mozart was a musical prodigy. He began composing music before his fifth birthday, and by the time he reached his teenage years, Mozart had already written manysymphonies and other musical works. As a young man, Mozart worked as a “concert-master” for the Archbishop of Salzburg, in Austria. He also travelled to various European cities. When he was in his mid-twenties, Mozart moved to the city of Vienna. Mozart had difficulty earning a living, but during this time he wrote some excellent operas and string quartets. Many people did not yet appreciate the greatness of Mozart’s music. In his early thirties, Mozart became the court musician for the Emperor of Austria, and during the next few years Mozart continued to write many beautiful works of music. Mozart died in 1791, but although his life was short, his productivity had been enormous. The beauty, grace, and technical precision of his music is still greatly admired, and he is considered one of the greatest musicians of all time. When Mozart was in Vienna, he met a young musician named Ludwig van Beethoven. Beethoven performed some music for Mozart, who was greatly impressed by the talent of this young man. Beethoven had been born in Germany in 1770, and from an early age he had displayed a great aptitude for music. Beethoven moved permanently to Vienna in 1792. He studied music under some famous composers, and became known for his outstanding skill in playing the piano. Beethoven began to compose more of his own music, and these works became very popular. When in his late twenties, Beethoven began to lose his hearing. He continued to compose excellent music, but he became morewithdrawn, and performed less frequently. By the year 1817, Beethoven had become completely deaf, and he could no longer perform music. However, his creative genius did not deteriorate. Instead, Beethoven created many of his greatest works despite his deafness. It was Beethoven’s influence that began the “Romantic” era of music, which followed the “classical” era of the nineteenth century. Beethoven died in 1827, but his music remains famous for its beauty and originality. His greatest symphonies, such as the Fifth Symphony, are among the world’s best-known works of music. Today, the works of Mozart and Beethoven are still popular among those who appreciate great music. Music fans can look back with wonder at the musical creativity that flourished in Vienna more than two centuries ago.
prodigy (N)
a person who has unusual and very noticeable abilities: a child prodigy (=an unusually intelligent child)
—
symphony
a long piece of music usually in four parts, written for an orchestra
Bruckner’s Fifth Symphony —
concertmaster
or
concertmeister the chief VIOLIN player in an ORCHESTRA ____________________________ string
the people in an orchestra or band who play musical instruments that have strings, such as violins ____________________________ quartet
four singers or musicians who sing or play together
a string quartet (=four people playing musical instruments with strings, such as violins) —
appreciate
to understand how good or useful someone or something is
Her abilities are not fully appreciated by her employer. I’m not an expert, but I appreciate fine works of art. ____________________________ the court
the king, queen, their family, and their friends, advisers etc
Several members of the court were under suspicion.
There was a taste in court circles for romantic verse.
Court officials denied the rumours. ____________________________ grace
way of moving [ uncountable ] a smooth way of moving that looks natural, relaxed, and attractive SYN gracefulness :
Lena moved with the grace of a dancer — precision
exactness, the quality of being very exact or correct
with precision
The work was carried out with military precision (=the work was done in a carefully planned and exact way) .
Scientific instruments have to be made with great precision.
—opposite imprecision —
aptitude
natural ability or skill, especially in learning
aptitude for
He has a natural aptitude for teaching. her aptitude for music is extraordinary
— permanently
always, or for a very long time
The accident left him permanently disabled. —
under
position at work
if you work under someone, they have a higher position in the company, organization etc than you, and they help to direct your work :
She had a total staff of ten working under her.
From 1847 to 1851 he served under Captain John Randolph Stokes.
At Cambridge he studied under (= was a student of ) F. R. Leavis. — withdrawn
very shy and quiet, and concerned only about your own thoughts
After his wife’s death he became more and more withdrawn . —
deteriorate
to become worse
Ethel’s health has deteriorated.
America’s deteriorating economy
his deteriorating health
Relations between the superpowers have deteriorated sharply in recent weeks. —
flourish
to develop well and be successful
ￚsynonym thrive The economy is booming and small businesses are flourishing.
Amelia Earhart was one of the most famous airplane pilots of all time. She is famous for the impressive travels that she made in her airplane, for the mystery surrounding her death, and for showing that women could perform great feats of aviation.Amelia Earhart was born in the American state of Kansas, in the year 1897. After graduating from high school, Earhart studied to become a nurse. She worked as a military nurse in Canada during World War One,treating injured soldiers. After the war, she returned to the United States, and became a social worker. But in 1920 she saw airplanes in a stunt-flying exhibition, and early the next year she took her first ride in an airplane. It was then that Amelia Earhart decided to become a pilot. Within a few months, Earhart saved her money and bought a small airplane. She flew frequently, and improved her skills as a pilot. In 1928, she joined two men in a flight across the Atlantic Ocean. But Amelia Earhart’s greatest exploits were still to come. In May 1932, she attempted to become the first woman to fly “solo,” or alone, across the Atlantic Ocean. She flew east from the island of Newfoundland, and faced cold weather, high winds, and dense fog. But she successfully crossed the ocean, and landed her airplane in a farmer’s field in Ireland. When news of her flight reached the United States, Amelia Earhart had become very famous. Later flights by Amelia Earhart were equally impressive. She became the first person to fly from Hawaii to California, across 4000 kilometres of the Pacific Ocean. She also became the first person to fly from Mexico City to the New York City area. But in 1937, she planned her most ambitious flight: a journey around the world. On June 1st, 1937, Amelia Earhart took off from Miami, Florida. She was accompanied by her navigator, Fred Noonan. They flew east, making stops along the way. Within one month, they had flown across three-quarters of the globe, reaching the Pacific island of New Guinea. On July 2nd, Earhart and Noonan took off from New Guinea, flying toward Howland Island. This very small island was over 4000 kilometres from New Guinea, and was very difficult to find in the middle of the vast ocean. During this flight, Earhart and Noonan were in radio contact with some ships from the U.S. Navy. However, bad weather made it impossible to see the stars at night, so navigation was very difficult, and the plane became lost. Earhart and Noonan never arrived at Howland Island. The U.S. Navy undertook a massive search, but they never found the lost airplane. Earhart and Noonan had been lost at sea. Amelia Earhart’s death was a great tragedy, but she had lived an exciting life that was full of achievements. She had helped to show that very long flights could be made, and that women could perform feats of flying that were equal to those of men. Even today, many people are inspired by the courage and endurance of Amelia Earhart.
feat:
an action needing strength, skill, or courage: It was quite a feat to move that piano by yourself! | feats of endurance | a remarkable feat of engineering
the construction of this bridge was a feat of engineering
Rustam and his amazing feats
—
aviation
the science or practice of flying in aircraft
—
treat
▶ILLNESS/INJURY◀
to try to cure an illness or injury by using drugs, hospital care, operations etc
ￚsee also treatment It was difficult to treat patients because of a shortage of medicine.
treat somebody with something
Nowadays, malaria can be treated with drugs.
—
stunt
an often dangerous act of skill: In the movie he had to drive a car into the sea, and other hair-raising stunts. | The plane flew upside down, turned over twice, and did a few more stunts before landing. | stunt flying | (fig.) If you go on pulling stupid stunts (=doing silly things) like that, you’ll lose us all our money.
—
exploit
a brave and successful act
a brave and exciting adventure that someone has had
exploit of
the daring exploits of the British Parachute Regiment
He performed many daring exploits, such as crossing the Atlantic Ocean in a rowboat.
—
dense
difficult to see through or breathe in
dense fog/smoke/cloud dense black smoke
—
equally
1
[+ adjective/adverb] to the same degree or amount
You must have a good education, but practical training is equally important.
2
in equal parts or amounts
We agreed to divide the money equally between everyone.
3
[sentence adverb] used when introducing a second idea or statement that is as important as your first one
We want the economy to grow, but equally we want low inflation.
—
ambitious
an ambitious plan, idea etc shows a desire to do something good but difficult
an ambitious engineering project
an over-ambitious health reform program
—
ambitious
showing or resulting from a desire to do something difficult or something that demands great effort, great skill, etc.: His next production was a very ambitious musical. | We cooked nothing more ambitious than scrambled eggs.
an ambitious engineering project
an over-ambitious health reform program
an ambitious undertaking
—
undertake
to take up or accept (a duty or piece of work, esp. one that is difficult or needs effort):
She undertook responsibility for the changes.
The Channel Tunnel is one of the biggest engineering projects ever undertaken.
Ahmad undertook to be their teacher
to undertake a task
this is too big a project to be undertaken by one man alone
—
inspire
to encourage someone by making them feel confident and eager to do something
We need someone who can inspire the team.
inspire somebody to do something
He inspired many young people to take up the sport.
inspire somebody to something
I hope this success will inspire you to greater efforts.
Inspired by the sunny weather, I decided to explore the woods.
He tried to inspire them to greater efforts.
I was inspired to work harder by her example.
—
endurance
the ability to continue doing something difficult or painful over a long period of time
physical/mental endurance
She was pushed beyond her powers of endurance .
The marathon is a test of endurance .
endurance sports/training (=designed to test or improve your endurance)
Long-distance races are won by the runners with the greatest endurance. | The course is a real test of endurance.
the endurance of the natural hardships of life
the great physical endurance of mountain climbers
endurance running
A person like me, who teaches andconducts research at an academic institution, is called “academic.” The academic institution may be a form of a university, a college or anotherpost-secondary institution. I have been working in universities for almost eleven years. While enjoying my life in academia, we “academics” also have a lot of stress and often go through a large amount of stress and frustration.Firstly, we have pressure from the university we are working at to become effective teachers. As the environment (in terms of the society and the marketplace) has become more dynamic and competitive, we, as teachers, must provide students with necessary skills and knowledge so they can become successful in their society. It requires a lot of preparation, updating of material, self-learning, and continuous improvement in teaching. For these reasons, teaching and learning should complement each other. Secondly, we have pressure from both our university and our academic peers to become active and effective researchers. What we teach to our students in class is no doubt closely related to what we have learned or discovered from our research activities. Thirdly, we have pressure from the university and the community to become goodcorporate citizens through active participation in various university committees and/or the community at large. A university and the community it belongs to must work closely together to identify common interests and to conduct projects that could benefit both parties. Even with a high degree of the aforementioned pressures, I love my job as a teacher, scholar, and citizen. There is a high level of freedom and flexibility. Academia is a place to meet new people, to create new ideas, and for everyone in that community to learn. It is a place where both teaching and learning always take place.
conduct
to carry out a particular activity or process, especially in order to get information or prove facts
conduct a survey/investigation/review etc
We are conducting a survey of consumer attitudes towards organic food. conduct an experiment/a test
Is it really necessary to conduct experiments on animals?
conduct a campaign
They conducted a campaign of bombings and assassinations.
conduct an interview
The interview was conducted in English.
The memorial service was conducted by the Rev. David Prior.
It was the first time that I had conducted business in Brazil.
—
institution
a large organization that has a particular kind of work or purpose
an organization that does educational, scientific, or financial work, especially a large and important organization that has existed for a long time
financial/educational/research etc institution
the Government and other political institutions
powerful institutions such as world banks
the Institution of Electrical Engineers
—
academic
relating to education, especially at college or university level
He possessed no academic qualifications. a program designed to raise academic standards
—
post-secondary
relating to schools or education after you have finished high school
postsecondary education
—
academia:
[uncountable]
the world of education, esp. universities: Professor James had been living in academia for too long to ever be successful in the business world.
—
frustration
the feeling of being annoyed, upset, or impatient, because you cannot control or change a situation, or achieve something
People often feel a sense of frustration that they are not being promoted quickly enough.
in/with frustration
I was practically screaming with frustration.
In spite of his frustrations, he fell in love with the country.
The players’ frustration mounted as the rain continued to pour down outside. | Life is full of frustrations.
—
in terms of something
if you explain or describe something in terms of a particular fact or event, you are explaining or describing it only in relation to that fact or event
describe/measure/evaluate etc
something in terms of something
Femininity is still defined in terms of beauty.
It’s a mistake to think of Florida only in terms of its tourist attractions.
It’s too early to start talking in terms of casualties.
in terms of what/how/who etc
Did the experiment find any differences in terms of what children learned?
—
marketplace
an open area in a town where a market is held
—
competitive
of, based on, or decided by competition: the competitive nature of private industry | competitive sports
Some US industries are not as competitive as they have been in the past.
The team seems to have lost its competitive edge recently (=its ability to compete well) .
competitive sports
—
peer:
formal your peers are the people who are the same age as you, or who have the same type of job, social class etc
American children did less well in math than their peers in Japan. Staff members are trained by their peers.
The opinions of his peers are more important to him than his parents’ ideas.
scholars of the first rank welcomed him as their peer
he has no peers in mathematics
Search this word on
—see also PEERLESS
—
the community
society and the people in it
The trend is towards reintegrating mentally ill people into the community. the international community (=all the countries of the world) The President appealed to the international community for aid for the flood victims.
—
corporate
—
party
a group of people a doing something together: A party of schoolchildren is going to Washington DC.
—
the aforementioned: (adj)
mentioned before in an earlier part of a document, article, book etc
The property belongs to the aforementioned Mr Jones.
the aforementioned writers’ works
ￚaforementioned noun
—
scholar
1
an intelligent and well-educated person
the great Dutch scholar Erasmus
2
someone who knows a lot about a particular subject, especially one that is not a science subject
a Shakespearean scholar
3
someone who has been given a scholarship to study at a school or college
He was a King’s scholar at Eton College.
What is business? A business includes all the activities involved to create and sell a product or service. The most important functional areas of business include: accounting, finance, marketing, production/operations, and human resources management. Accounting is a field of business that records and reports the flow of fundsthrough a firm on a historical basis and produces important financial statements such as balance sheets and income statements. It also produces forecasts of future conditions such as projected financial statements and financial budgets, and evaluates the firm’s financial performance against the forecasts. The finance area of business supports a firm in decisions concerning the financing of the firm’s business and the allocation and control of financial resources within the firm. Major activities of finance include cash and investment management,capital budgeting, financial forecasting, and financial planning. The cash and investment management activities forecast and manage the firm’s cash position and short-term and other securities. The capital budgeting activity involves evaluating the profitability and risk of proposed capital expenditures. The financial planning process evaluates the present and projected financial performance of the firm and projects the firm’s future financial needs. The marketing function of business is concerned with the planning, promotion, sale, and distribution of existing products or services in existing markets, and the development of new products and new markets in order to better serve existing and potential customers with quality products and services. It is also responsible for customer relationship management, product planning, pricing, advertising, after-sale service, and market research and forecasting. The production/operations function focuses on the management of all activities concerned with the planning and control of the processes producing goods or services. These activities include purchasing of raw material and parts, product design, inventory, manufacturing processes, facilities location and layout, quality control, and such other logistics as distribution and transportation. The human resource management function involves the recruitment, placement,evaluation, compensation, and development of a firm’s employees. With the main goal of the effective and efficient use of a firm’s human capital, the human resources management function supports planning to meet the personnel needs of the business, development of employees to their full potential, and control of all personnel policies and programs. While each of the aforementioned functional areas within a firm used to operate somewhat independently with its own objectives and resources, information and other computer technologies have integrated all business functions within the firm and created something called “an Internet worked e-business enterprise.”
flow
to move smoothly (as if) in a stream: The river flowed along rapidly. | Blood was flowing from his wound. | The cars flowed in a steady stream along the main road. | (fig.) As they sat around the fire, the conversation began to flow freely.
—
through
—
firm
a business or company, especially a small one
electronics/advertising/law etc firm
She works for an electronics firm.
a firm of accountants/solicitors/builders etc
Kevin is with a firm of accountants in Birmingham.
—
basis
the facts, principles, statements, etc. from which something is formed, started, or developed:
What is the basis of/for your opinion?
There is no scientific basis for these claims.
This series of lectures formed the basis of a new book.
Is it safe to predict the result on the basis of one opinion poll?
—
balance sheet
a statement of how much money a business has earned and how much money it has paid for goods and services
a healthy balance sheet
—
income statement
A financial statement that measures a company’s financial performance over a specific accounting period.
look at this articel too
—
allocation
the act of allocating
—
capital budgeting
is the planning process used to determine whether a firm’s long term investments such as new machinery, replacement machinery, new plants, new products, and research development projects are worth pursuing.
هزینه سرمایهای
—
inventory
a list of all the things in a place
inventory of
We made an inventory of everything in the apartment.
—
layout
the way in which something large with many parts is arranged, such as a town, garden, building, etc., esp. as shown in a drawing: In the new layout for the conference hall, the platform is to be placed at the western end. | The robbers studied the layout of the bank.
—
distribution
when goods are supplied to shops and companies for them to sell
a distribution centre
—
recruit
to find new people to work in a company, join an organization, do a job etc
We’re having difficulty recruiting enough qualified staff.
Many government officials were recruited from private industry.
ￚrecruitment noun [uncountable]
—
evaluation
a judgment about how good, useful, or successful something is
ￚsynonym assessment
We need to carry out a proper evaluation of the new system.
They took some samples of products for evaluation.
—
compensation
American English
the money someone is paid for doing their job
—
integrated
showing a usu. pleasing mixture of qualities, groups, etc.: an integrated school with children of different races and social classes | (well-)integrated characters | a poorly-/badly-integrated person (=who is not calm or happy and gets on badly with other people)
Another Source:
an integrated system, institution etc combines many different groups, ideas, or parts in a way that works well
an integrated public transport system
a racially integrated community
—
enterprise
a company, organization, or business
commercial enterprises such as banks and food manufacturers state/public enterprise especially British English (=one owned by the government)
[h=1]Strategic Uses of Information Technology[/h]دریافت فایل صوتی
What is information technology? How can information technology be used in an organization to improve its efficiency? How much investment should an organization make in information technology? What are the business benefits and opportunities an organization may achieve from using information technology? These are some of the most important questions many organizations ask themselves before investing their capitals in information technology. In an academic term, information technology is defined as hardware, software, telecommunications, database management, and other information processing technologies used in computer-based information systems. There are many ways that organizations may view and use information technology. However, in today’s competitive business environment technology is no longer an afterthought in forming business strategy, but it is the actual cause and driver. In other words, for a firm to maintain or improve its business competitiveness it must use information technology to achieve strategic advantage. Information technology can help a company substantially reduce the cost of business processes and lower the costs of customers or suppliers. Information technology can help a company differentiate its products and services from others. Using information technology, a firm can create new products and services or makeradical changes to business processes. A firm can use information technology to manage regional and global businessexpansion or to diversify and integrate into other products and services. A firm can use information technology to create virtual organizations of business partners or to develop alliances with customers, suppliers, and other business partners. Information technology can dramatically improve the efficiency of business processes and the quality of products and services. Using information technology, a firm can build a strategic information base of all the information collected. Some experts argue that use of information technology has become a strategic necessity rather than a strategic advantage, because most competitive advantages don’t last more than a few years. Whether the statement is true or not, most companies may not want to wait too long before investing in information technology because it would be tough to catch up later once you get behind yourcompetitors, especially when everyone is playing with newer, better technology.
efficiency
the quality of doing something well and effectively, without wasting time, money, or energy
ￚopposite inefficient
efficiency of
the efficiency of the train service
considerable advancements in energy efficiency
the new employee’s diligence and efficiency impressed everyone
—
capital
▶MONEY◀
money or property, especially when it is used to start a business or to produce more wealth
The government is eager to attract foreign capital.
circulating capital
any merchant needs capital
Another Source:
wealth, esp. money used to produce more wealth or for starting a business: You need a lot of capital to start up a new newspaper. | The company was started with a capital of $20,000. | a successful company that offers investors a high return on capital | They have a working capital (=money that can be used in the course of business activity) of $15,000. | What we need now is a big injection of capital.
—
afterthought
something that you mention or add later because you did not think of it or plan it before
He added as an afterthought, ‘Bring Melanie too’.
it occurred to me as an afterthought that he owed me money, too
Another Source:
something added later, esp. something that was not part of the original plan:
The balcony was an afterthought, added on to the building several years later.
—
competitiveness
the ability of a company, country, or a product to compete with others
New machinery has enhanced the company’s productivity and competitiveness.
Europe’s competitiveness in international markets.
—
substantially
very much or a lot
ￚsynonym considerably
substantially higher prices
The deer population has increased substantially in recent years.
Your contribution helped us substantially.
—
differentiate
to be the quality, feature etc that makes one thing or person clearly different from another
ￚsynonym distinguish
What differentiates these two periods of history?
differentiate something from something
Its unusual nesting habits differentiate this bird from others.
Defense Minister Ahmad Vahidi told reporters, Mesbah 1 has unique features that differentiate it from other similar air defense systems.
—
expansion
when something increases in size, range, amount etc
ￚsynonym growth
ￚsee also expand
expansion of
The rapid expansion of cities can cause social and economic problems.
expansion in
an expansion in student numbers
—
diversify
if a business, company, country etc diversifies, it increases the range of goods or services it produces
diversify (away) from
farmers forced to diversify away from their core business
diversify into
The company is planning to diversify into other mining activities.
we must diversify our products in order to attract more customers
Our factory is trying to diversify (its range of products). (=to make a large number of different products) | a publishing company that is now diversifying into the software market
—
integrate
—
alliance
—
dramatically
great and sudden
dramatic change/shift/improvement
Computers have brought dramatic changes to the workplace.
dramatic increase/rise/fall/drop/reduction etc
Universities have suffered a dramatic drop in student numbers.
dramatic effect/results
A serious accident can have a dramatic effect on your family’s finances.
—
argue
to state, giving clear reasons, that something is true, should be done etc
argue that
Croft argued that a date should be set for the withdrawal of troops.
It could be argued that a dam might actually increase the risk of
flooding.
argue for/against (doing) something
Baker argued against cutting the military budget.
She argued the case for changing the law.
The researchers put forward a well-argued case for banning the drug.
They argued the point (=discussed it) for hours without reaching a
conclusion.
—
strategic
useful or right for a particular purpose
Marksmen were placed at strategic points along the president’s route.
—
necessity
the condition of being necessary or unavoidable; need:
Is there any necessity for another election? | We won’t buy a car until the necessity arises. (=until we really need one) | We’re faced with the necessity of buying (=we have to buy) a new car. [+to-v] There is no necessity to buy tickets in advance. | I walked home of/by necessity, because there was no bus.
Another Source:
when something is necessary
necessity for
He emphasized the necessity for good planning and management.
the necessity of (doing) something
This illustrates the necessity of keeping accurate records of your work.
Many teachers are now questioning the necessity of formal exams.
through/out of necessity
He only remained with the group out of necessity.
economic/practical/political etc necessity
I’m afraid it’s become a matter of economic necessity .
—
advantage
something that may help one to be successful or to gain a favorable result:
Her teaching experience gave her a big advantage (over the other applicants for the job).
—
catch up (phrasal verb)
to come up from behind and reach the same point or level as:
You go ahead and I’ll catch up with you later. | At the moment our technology is more advanced than theirs, but they are catching up (with us) fast.
Another Source:
to improve and reach the same standard as other people in your class, group etc
If you miss a lot of classes, it’s very difficult to catch up.
catch up with
At the moment our technology is more advanced, but other countries are catching up with us.
he was behind the class in English, but he soon caught up
—
competitor
a person, team, company etc that is competing with another
Last year they sold twice as many computers as their competitors. major/main competitors
The company’s four major competitors have nothing to rival the new product.
Electronic commerce (or simply e-commerce) is more than just buying and selling products or services online. Itencompasses the entire online process of developing, marketing, selling, delivering, servicing, and paying for products and services. E-commerce systems rely on the resources of the Internet and other computer networks to support every step of the process. Through an e-commerce system, customers can order and make payment for the products or services they purchase online and receive support at the company’s websites through the Internet. It also allows customers and suppliers to participate in product development via Internet newsgroups and E-mail exchanges. There are three basic types of e-commerce applications: business-to-business (B2B), business-to-consumer (B2C), and consumer-to-consumer (C2C).Business-to-business (B2B) e-commerce is the online automation of purchase and sale transactions from business to business. Many companies use secure Internet or extranets for their business customers and suppliers to access to their websites while some may rely on electronic data interchange (EDI) systems. Cisco Systems, a leading manufacturer of computer networking equipment, makes about 40 percent of its sales online. These activities include order taking, credit check, production scheduling and technical support to their customers. General Electric and the United Parcel Service (UPS) are a few of many other firms that offer B2B e-commerce sites. Business-to-consumer (B2C) e-commerce creates electronic marketplaces where businesses promote and sell products and services directly to consumers. In this form of electronic commerce, which has grown into a multibillion dollar market, businesses can bypass intermediaries such as distributors or retail outlets. Companies like Amazon.com and Dell Corporation offer e-commerce websites that provide virtual storefronts and multimedia catalogs, interactive order processing, secure electronic payment systems, and online customer support. Consumer-to-consumer (C2C) e-commerce is an important alternative for business-to-business or business-to-consumer e-commerce. In this form of e-commerce, consumers can buy and sell products and services with each other in an auction process at an auction website. Through an online auction site like e-Bay, one of the most successful C2C e-commerce models, consumers or businesses can participate in or sponsor consumer or business auctions. Other forms of consumer-to-consumer e-commerce include personal advertising of products or services by consumers at electronic newspaper sites, consumer e-commerce portals, or personal websites.
commerce
the buying and selling of goods and services; trade:
international commerce
—
simply
if you say or explain something simply, you say it in a way that is easy for people to understand
Try to express yourself more simply. To put it simply , the tax cuts mean the average person will be about 3% better off.
—
encompass
to include a wide range of ideas, subjects, etc
The study encompasses the social, political, and economic aspects of the situation.
The course encompasses the whole of English literature since 1850.
a large company whose activities encompass printing, publishing, and computers
—
Internet
the Internet
a computer system that allows millions of computer users around the world to exchange information
on the Internet
You can find all kinds of information on the internet.
More and more companies are using the internet to conduct their business.
Do you have access to the Internet ?
an internet café (=a café with computers where people can pay to use the internet)
همیشه قبل از اینترنت حرف تعریف “ذ” آورده میشود و حرف “ای” در اینترنت بزرگ نوشته میشود
I searched the Internet
—
via
using a particular person, machine etc to send something
I sent a message to Kitty via her sister.
You can access Salam Zaban via the Internet.
—
exchange
▶GIVING/RECEIVING◀
the act of giving someone something and receiving something else from them
exchange of
an exchange of political prisoners
in exchange for something
I’ve offered to paint the kitchen in exchange for a week’s accommodation.
Four of my cassettes for your Madonna CD is a fair exchange .
—
automation
the use of computers and machines instead of people to do a job
the automation of the automotive industry
—
transaction
a business deal or action, such as buying or selling something
The bank charges a fixed rate for each transaction.
financial transactions
—
extranet
a computer system in a company that allows better communication between the company and its customers by combining Internet and intranet systems, so that some customers can view some of the company’s private information that is not normally available on the Internet
—
rely
rely on/upon somebody/something phrasal verb
to trust or depend on someone or something to do what you need or expect them to do
ￚsee also reliable, relianceI knew I could rely on David.
rely on somebody/something to do something
Many working women rely on relatives to help take care of their children.
rely on/upon somebody/something for
Many people now rely on the Internet for news.
You can’t rely on the weather. (=it may well be bad)
I think I can come, but don’t rely on it.
We’re relying on your discretion.
Don’t rely on going to Tibet. (=perhaps you won’t)
Rely on my/me doing it.
Don’t rely on the bank lending you the money. (=perhaps they won’t)
You can rely on me to help you.
—
interchange
an exchange, especially of ideas or thoughts
interchange of
the interchange of ideas between students and staff
the interchange of gifts
—
leading
best, most important, or most successful, main, chief
*The army played a leading role in organizing the attempted coup.
*the leading industrial nations
*a leading heart specialist
*leading members of the government
*He was one of the leading composers of his time.
*a leading role in the new movie
—
manufacturer
also manufacturers
[plural] a company that makes large quantities of goods
Read the manufacturer’s instructions before using your new dishwasher.
The fridge was sent back to the manufacturers.
The washing machine didn’t work, so we sent it back to the manufacturers.
—
billion
the number 1,000,000,000
The final cost could be as much as one billion dollars.
two/three/four etc billion
3.5 billion years ago
Overseas debt is a staggering £16 billion.
billions of pounds/dollars etc
Many airlines have lost billions of dollars.
—
intermediary
a person or organization that tries to help two other people or groups to agree with each other
ￚsee also go-between
Jackson acted as an intermediary between the two parties.
He acted as an intermediary in the dispute.
ￚintermediary adjective [only before noun]
an intermediary role in the talks
Switzerland’s foreign minister served as an intermediary between the two countries.
—
distributor
a company or person that supplies shops and companies with goods
The company is the local distributor for Volkswagen spare parts.
—
retail
the sale of goods in shops to customers, for their own use and not for selling to anyone else
ￚsee also wholesale
the retail trade/business
a manager with twenty years’ experience in the retail business
retail outlet/shop/store/chain
We are looking for more retail outlets for our products.
a retail price of £8.99
The retail value would be around $500.
Retail sales fell by 1.3% in January.
the retail of products
retail prices
the retail price of each commodity is higher than its wholesale price
a retail store outlet
a) formal a shop, company, or organization through which products are sold
Benetton has retail outlets in every major European city. a fast-food outlet
our farmers have a choice of several outlets
they must find new outlets for their industries b) a shop where a company sells its goods – use this in business or legal contexts
Benetton has retail outlets in every major European city.
The company has been forced to close hundreds of its retail outlets. ________________________________ storefront
(a building having) the front of a store facing a street: storefronts for rent
a party set up in an empty storefront ________________________________ interactive
involving talking and working together :
interactive teaching methods such as role playing — alternative
something you can choose to do or use instead of something else
alternative to
Is there a viable alternative to the present system?
If payment is not received within five days, legal action will be our only alternative .
I had no alternative but to report him to the police.
He quickly assessed what alternatives were open to him.
I’m afraid I have no alternative but to report you to the police.
—
auction
a public meeting where land, buildings, paintings etc are sold to the person who offers the most money for them
to bid at a furniture auction
It was sold by auction.
at auction
The house was sold at auction.
put something up for auction (=try to sell something at an auction) This week 14 of his paintings were put up for auction. auction house (=a company that arranges auctions)
They’ve put the contents of their house up for auction.
—
sponsor
—
portal
a website that helps you find other websites
retail
the sale of goods in shops to customers, for their own use and not for selling to anyone else
ￚsee also wholesale
the retail trade/business
a manager with twenty years’ experience in the retail business
retail outlet/shop/store/chain
We are looking for more retail outlets for our products.
a retail price of £8.99
The retail value would be around $500.
Retail sales fell by 1.3% in January.
I left Korea 25 years ago for Toronto, Ontario, Canada. I was 17 years old at that time.
Now everyone knows how old I am. As any immigrant who left his or her own country for
a new place looking for a better life, I believe the first five years of my living in Canada
were the most challenging ones.It did not take long time for me to realize that I would have to face one of the biggest challenges in my life: the language problem. Although I had learned English in high
schools for almost for five years before coming to Canada, I did not find it useful in day-
to-day living at this new place. My frustrations, stemming from lack of my English
conversation skills, included ordering food at a fast-food restaurant, phone conversation,
and conversations with neighbors. The most frustrating moment was my inability to explain to other people when I was
accused of something I did not do. Knowing that I was not able to defend myself properly
due to lack of conversation skills, a few people often took advantage of me for their own
benefits. However, throughout the years I met a lot of good people who gave me strength and
encouragement. Among those people in my heart I still remember Mrs. Overholts. Mrs.
Overholts was working in the Counsellor’s Office at the high school I attended for two
years, and she gave me a lot of valued advice and directions in regards to my academic
life, as well as my personal one. My dear friends in my high school also helped me not only to survive in the new country
but also taught me the new cultures and systems. Some of them went to the same
university as I did, while others went to different institutions. I am still in contact with
many of them, but wherever they are I believe they are making a positive contribution to
the society. I owe the most to my father; my mother, who passed away seven years ago; and my
brothers. We were neither rich nor poor, but we stuck together all the time. My parents
taught me love, care, and kindness through their actions, not just their words. It was
from my family that I got strength when I was weak. It was my family who listened to me
ome a more mature and independent human being. I thank all of those who played a
role in some way to help me out during the transition period of my life. immigrant
▶FULLY GROWN◀
fully grown and developed
Mature apple trees are typically 20 feet tall. The new leader wants his country to be seen as a mature democracy. The human brain isn’t fully mature until about age 25. physically/emotionally/sexually mature Most girls are sexually mature by about 14 years of age. __________________ transition
formal when something changes from one form or state to another
transition from something to something
the smooth transition from full-time work to full retirement
Making the transition from youth to adulthood can be very painful.
a society that is in transition (=changing)
the period of transition to full democracy http://salamzaban.com/search?searchword=transition&ordering=newest&searchphrase=all&limit=20
The Great Lakes are a group of five large freshwater lakes in North America that areinterconnected by natural andartificial channels. They are (from east to west): Lake Ontario, Lake Erie, Lake Huron, Lake Michigan, and Lake Superior. Most of them, except Lake Michigan, which lies entirely within the United States, form part of the border between the United States and Canada. The Great Lakes are bordered by the Canadian province of Ontario and by eight U.S. states including (from west to east) Wisconsin, Minnesota, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Michigan, Pennsylvania, and New York. Large cities like Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland, and Toronto lie on the shores of the Great Lakes system. The Great Lakes system, with a combined surface area of 244,100 sq km, holds about 20 percent of the world’s fresh surface water. Lake elevations decrease to the east and south. Lake Superior, the largest lake at 82,100 sq km, is also the largest freshwater lake in the world. Its outlet is the Saint Mary’s River, which enters Lake Huron after falling about 7 metres over a series of rapids. Lake Huron and Lake Michigan lie at the same elevation. Water flows from Lake Michigan to Lake Huron. Lake Michigan is deeper than Lake Huron, but the latter is larger in area, at 59,600 sq km. Lake Huron drains into the Saint Clair River, which falls about 3 metres between Lake Huron and the small, shallow basin of Lake Saint Clair. Lake Saint Clair is connected to Lake Erie by the Detroit River. At its northeast end, Lake Erie empties into the Niagara River, which drops 99 metres as it flows north to Lake Ontario, which is the smallest of the Great Lakes at 19,010 sq km. Lake Ontario is linked with the Atlantic Ocean via the St. Lawrence River. The Great Lakes, interconnected by rivers, straits, and canals, are a natural resource of tremendous significance in North America; they serve as the focus of the industrial heartland of the continent and together form one of the world’s busiest shipping arteries. The lakes also form an important recreational resource with about 17,000 km of shoreline, rich sport fisheries, and numerous beaches and marinas.
freshwater
having water that contains no salt
ￚsee also saltwater
freshwater lakes
—
interconnect
if two systems, places etc are interconnected, or if they interconnect, they are joined together
a series of interconnected lakes
interconnecting rooms
Our operating system can now interconnect with other networks.
this hallway interconnects the two buildings
—
artificial
not real or not made of natural things but made to be like something that is real or natural
ￚopposite natural
ￚsynonym false
artificial flowers
artificial light
artificial fertilizers
shore
the land along the edge of a large area of water such as an ocean or lake
We could see a boat about a mile from shore.
Only a few survivors reached the shore.
She began to swim to shore.
on the shores of something
a holiday resort on the shores of the Adriatic
on shore
We had a couple of hours on shore (=not on a ship) .
off shore
The island is about 3 miles off shore (=away from the coast) .
rocky/sandy shore
elevation
a height above the level of the sea
elevation of
The road climbs steadily to an elevation of 1400 feet.
—
outlet
a way through which something (usu. a liquid or a gas) may go out:
(fig.) an outlet for his feelings
a waste water outlet
this port is their only outlet on the Red Sea
America became an outlet for Europe’s surplus population
—
rapids
part of a river where the water looks white because it is moving very fast over rocks
latter
the latter
formal the second of two people or things just mentioned
ￚopposite former
Where unemployment and crime are high, it can be assumed that the latter is due to the former.
If offered money or travel check, I’d choose the latter.
—
drain
to (cause to) flow off gradually or completely: to drain all the oil from/out of the engine | Boil the vegetables for 20 minutes then drain off the water. | The rainwater drained off/away. | (fig.) These children drain my energy! | (fig.) This country is being drained of its best doctors. | (fig.) The old lady’s strength is draining away.
fall
▶MOVE DOWNWARDS◀
to move or drop down from a higher position to a lower position
The tree was about to fall.
The book fell from his hands.
Enough rain had fallen to flood the grounds.
fall down
Rob fell down the stairs.
apples fall from the tree
Ali fell from the ladder
Jaffar fell into the pool
a heavy snow fell
the old man fainted and fell to the ground
strait
also straits
[plural] a narrow passage of water between two areas of land, usually connecting two seas
the Bering Strait
the straits of Hormoz
_______________
tremendous
very big, fast, powerful etc :
Suddenly, there was a tremendous bang, and the whole station shook.
She was making a tremendous effort to appear calm.
She praised her husband for the tremendous support he had given her.
Sales have been tremendous so far this year.
This plan could save us a tremendous amount of money.
significance
the importance of an event, action etc, especially because of the effects or influence it will have in the future OPP insignificance :
Stella didn’t attach any significance to Doug’s query. significance of
the significance of climate change
The book assesses the significance of Stalin’s policies between 1927 and 1939. significance for
The results of the study have a wider significance for all the profession. great/little significance (in/to/for something)
The crime problem has great significance to the general public. grasp/appreciate the significance (of something) (= fully understand something )
The press were slow to grasp the significance of what happened.
heartland
the most important part of a country or area for a particular activity, or the part where a political group has most support
the Democratic heartlands of the Deep South
continent
a large mass of land surrounded by sea
the continents of Asia and Africa
artery
a main road, railway line, river etc
the place where the three main arteries of south Tehran meet
recreation
an activity that you do for pleasure or amusement
His only recreations are drinking beer and watching football.
the provision of recreation facilities (=places or equipment for people to use to enjoy themselves)
recreation ground/area/room
a recreation area for children to play in
ￚrecreational adjective recreational activities
resource
land/oil/coal etc [ countable usually plural ]
something such as useful land, or minerals such as oil or coal, that exists in a country and can be used to increase its wealth :
Canada’s vast mineral resources
a country rich in natural resources
fishery
a part of the sea where fish are caught in large numbers
marina
a small port or area of water where people keep boats that are used for pleasure
In many ways, the automobile has been one of the most important inventions of the modern age. People have been able to travel much more freely, and across much greater distances, than was possible in the past. The automobile, which most people refer to as the “car,” has also had some harmful consequences, such as pollution and accidents. However, it is clear that life has changed profoundly as a result of the car. Modern cars are very complicated, but the basic idea of how a car works can be described briefly. When the keys are turned in the ignition of the car, this creates aspark that ignites some gasoline vapour inside a cylinder. Then, the rapidexpansion of this vapour pushes against a part called a piston. The movement of the piston then causes a turning motion in a shaft that is connected to the wheels. The wheels turn, and the car moves. 
