Louis Pasteur was one of the greatest scientists of all time. Pasteur made very important discoveries in biology and chemistry, and the techniques he developed helped greatly to develop medical science and the agricultural and food industries.Pasteur was born in a small town in France during the year 1822. When he was a young man, Pasteur studied science at a university in the city of Paris. He soon did some excellent work in chemistry, and later began his famous study of germs. Pasteur was one of the first scientists to understand that many diseases could be caused by extremely small, invisible organisms. Only a few other scientists had believed this before Pasteur. He advised doctors to wash their hands thoroughly before treating patients. Pasteur also demonstrated that life forms did not arise spontaneously. His research confirmed the idea, developed by previous scientists, that a living organism would not appear unless other individuals of its kind were present. One of Pasteur’s most important contributions was a technique that has been named after him: pasteurization. Pasteurization kills the germs that are found in drinks such as milk or beer. Because of Pasteur’s technique, people are no longer infected with diseases by drinking these liquids. Just as important as pasteurization was a technique called immunization. Pasteur found that a person or animal could be made safe, or immune, from a disease, by injecting the person with some weakened germs that cause the disease. The body can resist the disease after being immunized in this way. Today, many diseases are prevented by the use of this technique. Pasteur’s discoveries also helped to save people who had already been infected with diseases. One such disease is rabies. Rabies is a disease that sometimes occurs in animals. This disease usually kills the animal, but before dying, the animal becomes very aggressive, and may spread the disease by biting a person or another animal. One day, the parents of a young boy came to Pasteur. Their son had been bitten by a dog that had the rabies disease. The parents knew that their son would die from the disease, unless something could be done to save him. Pasteur agreed to help the boy, and the immunization technique saved the boy’s life. Pasteur died in 1895. He was greatly admired around the world for his achievements, which have helped all of humankind. Today, Pasteur is considered to be the greatest figure in the history of medicine.
agriculturaladj)
agricultural land
agricultural labourers
—
germ:
a very small living thing that can make you ill
ￚsee also bacteria
Put disinfectant down the toilet to kill any germs.
—
treat:
▶ILLNESS/INJURY◀
to try to cure an illness or injury by using drugs, hospital care, operations etc
It was difficult to treat patients because of a shortage of medicine.
treat somebody with something
Nowadays, malaria can be treated with drugs.
—
spontaneous:
1
something that is spontaneous has not been planned or organized, but happens by itself, or because you suddenly feel you want to do it
The crowd gave a spontaneous cheer. My spontaneous reaction was to run away.
2
someone who is spontaneous does things without planning them first – used to show approval
ￚspontaneously adverb
She laughed spontaneously.
—
resist:
to try to prevent a change from happening, or prevent yourself from being forced to do something
He resisted pressure to resign.
resist doing something
For months the company has resisted changing its accounts system.
strongly/fiercely/vigorously etc resist The proposal was strongly resisted by the police.
—
rabies:
a very dangerous disease that affects dogs and other animals, and that you can catch if you are bitten by an infected animal
—
aggressive:
behaving in an angry, threatening way, as if you want to fight or attack someone
Jim’s voice became aggressive.
Teachers apparently expect a certain amount of aggressive behaviour from boys.
—
admire:
to respect and like someone because they have done something that you think is good
I really admire the way she brings up those kids all on her own.
admire somebody for (doing) something
Lewis was much admired for his work on medieval literature.
ￚadmired adjective
the widely admired boss of Channel 4
—
figure:
▶PERSON◀
someone who is important or famous in some way
a leading/key/central figure
Several leading figures resigned from the party.
the outstanding political figure of his time
a great literary figure
Are you interested in the behaviour of people and animals? If you are, then you might enjoy the study of psychology. Psychology is the study of behaviour, but this is a very large area of study. There are several different branches of psychology, each of which studies a different aspect of behaviour.Social psychologists study interactions among people. For example, a social psychologist might try to learn about the situations that cause people to behave aggressively. Another question studied by social psychologists is why certain people become attracted to each other. One of the interesting problems in social psychology is conformity: what causes people to behave in the same way, and to follow what others do and say? Cognitive psychologists study thinking, memory, and language. One problem studied by cognitive psychologists is how people remember numbers. For example, what is the best way to memorize some numbers? Is it better to repeat the numbers to oneself, or to try to attach some meaning to these numbers? A cognitive psychologist might also study language. For example, why can young children learn a second language so quickly and easily? Cognitive psychologists are also interested in the ways that people learn to solve problems, such as finding a new place. Clinical psychologists study mental illnesses. For example, a clinical psychologist might try to find out the causes of depression and to figure out ways of helping people who are depressed. Other clinical psychologists might study the behaviour of people who suffer from addiction to drugs, so that this problem can be prevented and treated. Another topic of interest to clinical psychologists is violent behaviour. It is very important to find ways of preventing violence and to change the behaviour of personswho act violently. Some psychologists are interested in the measurement of psychologicalcharacteristics. For example, psychologists might develop tests to assess a person’s intelligence, personality traits, or interests. These tests can be used to help people make decisions about education, occupation, and clinical treatment. Psychologists who study the behaviour of animals are called ethologists. Ethologists often go into wilderness areas to watch the activity of birds, fish, or other animals. These psychologists try to figure out why it is that some animals have “instincts” for various behaviours such as parenting, mating, or fighting. Some ethologists have learned very much about the unusual behaviours observed in many animals. These are only a few of the many areas of psychology. Truly, psychology is one of the most interesting areas of knowledge!
aspect:
one part of a situation, idea, plan etc that has many parts
aspect of
*Dealing with people is the most important aspect of my work.
*Alcoholism affects all aspects of family life.
*the most terrifying aspect of nuclear bombing is radiation
*the various aspects of the problem
Another Source:
a particular side of a many-sided situation, idea, plan, etc.:
The training program covers every aspect of the job. | The rise in violent crime is one of the more worrying aspects of the current situation.
—
interaction:
the activity of talking to other people, working together with them etc
interaction with/between
the degree of interaction between teacher and student
—
Cognitive:
related to the process of knowing, understanding, and learning something
cognitive learning
—
persons:
formal or law
someone who is not known or not named
*The police are appealing for any person who was in the area at this time to contact them.
*murder by person or persons unknown
*All 115 persons on board were killed.
—
characteristic:
a quality or feature of something or someone that is typical of them and easy to recognize
characteristic of
a baby discovering the physical characteristics of objects
defining/distinguishing characteristic (=one that separates someone or something from others of the same type) Violent images are a defining characteristic of his work.
—
assess:
1
to make a judgment about a person or situation after thinking carefully about it
ￚsynonym judge
assess the impact/extent/effectiveness etc of something a report to assess the impact of advertising on children
assess what/how etc
The technique is being tried in classrooms to assess what effects it may have.
be assessed as something
Many of the adults were assessed as having learning difficulties.
2
to calculate the value or cost of something
be assessed at something
The value of the business was assessed at £1.25 million.
—
ethologist:
The scientific study of animal behavior, especially as it occurs in a natural environment
—
wilderness:
a large area of land that has never been developed or farmed
the Alaskan wilderness
Another Source
an area in its natural state where there are no signs of humans: We went camping in the beautiful wilderness of West Virginia. | The mountain lion rarely leaves the wilderness.
—
instinct:
a natural tendency to behave in a particular way or a natural ability to know something, which is not learned
ￚsee also intuition
instinct for
Animals have a natural instinct for survival.
instinct to do something
the human instinct to form relationships
by instinct
Birds build nests by instinct.
sexual/maternal/survival instinct
Her instinct told her that something was wrong.
—
mating:
When an official of a government or business is acting dishonestly, we say that this person is corrupt.Corruption is a serious problem in many countries around the world. There are several different kinds of corrupt practices, including bribes, kickbacks,nepotism, and embezzlement. A bribe is a payment of money or some other benefit, in exchange for a decision that would not otherwise be made. For example, an accused criminal might bribe a judge so that the judge would make a decision of “not guilty.” Another example is that a business owner might bribe a government official so that the official would allow the construction of very unsafe buildings. A kickback is similar to a bribe, except that the official receives some part of the money in a dishonest business deal. For example, governments sometimes decide which company should build a road. A company might offer money to the government official who makes the decision, so that this company will be chosen, even if it is not the best company for the job. Nepotism happens when an official unfairly gives advantages to his or her relatives. For example, a government official might hire a brother or sister to do a job even though other people would be much better qualified for the job. Of course, all of us want to help our relatives, but it is wrong to do this at the expense of the public. Embezzlement happens when an official secretly steals some money from a company or government. For example, a manager at a company might secretly move some of the company’s money to his or her own bank account, or that manager might lie about his or her expenses in order to receive more payment from the company. Corruption has very bad effects on people, in several ways. Sometimes it can lead to very dangerous situations. One example of this is when unsafe construction projects are approved by officials who have been bribed. Another example is when criminals are freed as a result of bribes. Also, a country’s economy can be damaged by corruption. For example, if companies must pay bribes in order to do business, then they may decide to leave the country. Also, if people’s tax money is stolen by corrupt officials, this makes the people poorer. In addition, when company officials are corrupt, it makes the company less able to compete with other companies. How can corruption be stopped? An important step is for each person to decide not to act in ways that are corrupt. People must agree to take this problem seriously. Also, each company and each government must have strict rules about corruption. It must be very clear to all employees-from the lowest to the highest-that corruption is totally unacceptable.
corrupt:
using your power in a dishonest or illegal way in order to get an advantage for yourself
ￚopposite incorruptible
Corrupt judges have taken millions of dollars in bribes.
—
corruption:
dishonest, illegal, or immoral behaviour, especially from someone with power
*officials charged with bribery and corruption
*The investigation uncovered widespread corruption within the police force.
political/official corruption
—
bribe:
to illegally give someone, especially a public official, money or a gift in order to persuade them to do something for you
The only way we could get into the country was by bribing the border officials.
bribe somebody to do something
He bribed one of the prison guards to smuggle out a note.
Another Source
to influence the behavior or judgment of (esp. someone in a position of power or trust) unfairly or illegally by offering them favors or gifts: She was charged with attempting to bribe a police officer. | I bribed him into giving me the documents. | They tried to bribe the judge to acquit them. | (fig.) The child was bribed with a piece of cake to go to bed quietly.
*the employee admitted that he had been receiving bribes
*bribable
*he tried to bribe the judge
—
kickback:
informal
money that someone pays secretly and dishonestly in return for someone’s help
ￚsynonym bribe
—
nepotism:
the practice of unfairly giving the best jobs to members of your family when you are in a position of power
—
embezzle:
to steal money from the place where you work
Two managers were charged with embezzling $400,000.
the accountant embezzled the bank’s money
ￚembezzlement noun [uncountable]
ￚembezzler noun [countable]
—
construction:
▶BUILDING SOMETHING◀
[uncountable] the process of building things such as houses, bridges, roads etc
construction of
the construction of a new airport
under construction
(=being built) The hotel is currently under construction.
a road construction project
construction workers
—
at the expense of somebody/something:
if something is done at the expense of someone or something else, it is only achieved by doing something that could harm the other person or thing
*he was successful in business but it was done at the expense of his health
—
free:
▶RELEASE◀
to allow someone to leave prison or somewhere they have been kept as a prisoner
ￚsynonym releaseHe expects to be freed quite soon.The terrorists have at last agreed to free the hostages.
free somebody from something
She was freed from prison last week.
[h=1]Two Great Artists : Leonardo and Michelangelo[/h]دریافت فایل صوتی
Many people admire the paintings and sculptures that artists create. Some very beautiful paintings and sculptures were created by two men who lived in the same country at the same time. These men were Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo. They both lived in Italy around the year 1500. Leonardo da Vinci is most famous for his painting called the Mona Lisa. This is perhaps the best-known painting in the world. The Mona Lisa shows the head and shoulders of a dark-haired woman. When people look at this painting, they are often captivated by her smile and by her eyes, which have a look of mystery. Another painting of Leonardo’s is called The Last Supper. This painting shows a famous scene from the Christian religion. In this painting, Jesus Christ is seated at the middle of a long table, with his followers (the disciples) seated around him. Many of the paintings that were created at this time have a religious theme. Leonardo was not only an artist; he was also interested in engineering. He actually worked for some time as an advisor to a military leader, helping him to develop new machines for use in war. Leonardo also made rough drawings of machines that are similar to those that were invented much later, such as submarines and helicopters. Obviously, Leonardo was an extremely creative man. Michelangelo was about 23 years younger than Leonardo. In addition to being a painter, Michelangelo was also a sculptor, and many experts consider him the greatest sculptor of all time. One of his most famous sculptures is David, which is a statue of a young man who was a famous figure in the Bible. Another great sculpture of Michelangelo’s is called the Pieta. The Pieta shows Mary, the mother of Jesus, holding the body of her son across her lap. Michelangelo is also famous for painting the ceiling of a church known as the Sistine Chapel. The leader of the Roman Catholic Church, Pope Julius, asked Michelangelo to paint the ceiling of this new church. This project required many years of hard work, and the Pope complained that it took too long. However, when the work was finished, the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel was covered with beautiful paintings of many scenes from the Bible. Fortunately, many of the works of Leonardo and of Michelangelo can still be seen today in the art galleries of Europe. During the past 500 years, the color of the paintings had faded somewhat, but in recent years, some work has been done to restore the paintings to their original appearance.
admire:
to think of or look at with pleasure and respect: I admire (her for) the way she handles her staff. | You may not like him, but you’ve got to admire his persistence. | He gave her an admiring look. | He’s always looking in the mirror, admiring himself!
—
captivate:
to attract someone very much, and hold their attention
*He was captivated by her beauty.
*at the age of eighteen, I was captivated by a woman named Parivash
Another Source:
to charm, excite, and attract: The dancer quickly captivated her audience. | Venice’s captivating beauty
—
disciple:
1
someone who believes in the ideas of a great teacher or leader, especially a religious one
disciple of
He was also an avid reader and a disciple of Tolstoy.
2
one of the first 12 men to follow Christ
—
fade:
to lose colour and brightness, or to make something do this
*the fading evening light
*a pair of faded jeans
*The sun had faded the curtains.
About a thousand years ago, people known as the Vikings were known and feared throughout Europe. The Vikings were the people of the northern part of Europe, called Scandinavia, which includes the modern countries of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. The Vikings made their living by farming and fishing. However, by about the year 700, they began making attacks, or raids, upon towns along the coasts of Europe in order to steal the wealth of those towns. The Vikings made their attacks very quickly and without any warning. They were very cruel to the people of the towns they attacked, and they sometimes destroyed the towns by burning down the buildings. In some parts of Europe, the local kings would often fight against the Vikings. Sometimes, however, the kings would pay the Vikings in order to persuade them not to attack. Although the Vikings were known as fierce warriors, they also built excellent ships. The wooden Viking ships, called longboats, were able to sail even in very bad weather. Many Viking longboats were about 20 metres long, but some were nearly 90 metres long. The Viking sailors used both sails and oars to move their ships. The Vikings travelled across a large area. They made many of their attacks in Britain, France, and Germany, but sometimes sailed south, into the Mediterranean Sea. Other Vikings moved to the east, and then south along the rivers of Russia. Some even went as far as the area that is now the country of Turkey. In some places, the Vikings decided to stay. Many Vikings settled in England and in France, and eventually they mixed with the local people. Other Vikings settled in Russia and also mixed with the people there. The most famous travels of the Vikings were in the Atlantic Ocean. Vikings sailedwestward to the island of Iceland where many of them stayed. Today, the people of Iceland are descended from the Vikings. Some Vikings sailed farther west to the cold island of Greenland. Vikings lived in Greenland for several generations, but eventually they died out. Some Vikings had gone even further west and reached the Canadian island of Newfoundland. The Vikings only stayed for a few years, but they had reached North America about 500 years before Christopher Columbus! Gradually, the Vikings became converted to the Christian religion. They also stopped raiding the towns of Europe, and instead of fighting, they began trading with their neighbors. Today, the Scandinavian countries are known as very peace-loving nations.
raid:
a short attack on a place by soldiers, planes, or ships, intended to cause damage but not take control
a bombing raidan air raid warning siren
raid on/against
The colonel led a successful raid against a rebel base.
launch/carry out/stage a raid
The army launched several cross-border raids last night.
—
persuade:
1
to make someone decide to do something, especially by giving them reasons why they should do it, or asking them many times to do it
persuade somebody to do something
*I finally managed to persuade her to go out for a drink with me.
persuade somebody into doing something
*Don’t let yourself be persuaded into buying things you don’t want.
try/manage/fail to persuade somebody
*I’m trying to persuade your dad to buy some shares.
attempt/effort to persuade somebody
*Leo wouldn’t agree, despite our efforts to persuade him.
little/a lot of/no persuading
*He took a lot of persuading to come out of retirement (=it was hard to persuade him) .
*He was fairly easily persuaded .
2
to make someone believe something or feel sure about something
ￚsynonym convinceI am not persuaded by these arguments.
persuade somebody (that)
She’ll only take me back if I can persuade her that I’ve changed.
persuade somebody of something
McFadden must persuade the jury of her innocence.
—
fierce:
a fierce person or animal is angry or ready to attack, and looks very frightening
fierce guard dogs
She turned round, looking fierce.
—
warrior:
a soldier or fighter who is brave and experienced – used about people in the past
a noble warrior
—sail:
a large piece of strong cloth fixed onto a boat, so that the wind will push the boat along
a yacht with white sails
hoist/lower the sails (=put the sails up or down) —
westward: towards the west
The ship turned westward, away from the coast. ￚwestward adjective
westward flights
—
be descend from somebody/something
phrasal verb be descended from somebody
to be related to a person or group who lived a long time ago
*She claims to be descended from Abraham Lincoln. *The people here are descended from the Vikings.
— die out
phrasal verb
to disappear or stop existing completely
*The wild population of koalas is in danger of dying out.
*some animals are in danger of dying out.
There have been many great writers in the history of English literature, but there is no doubt about which writer was the greatest. Many people consider William Shakespeare to have been the best writer who ever lived. William Shakespeare was born in the town of Stratford, England, in the year 1564. When he was a young man, Shakespeare moved to the city of London, where he began writing plays. His plays were soon very successful, and were enjoyed both by the common people of London and also by the rich and famous. In addition to his plays, Shakespeare wrote many short poems and a few longer poems. Like his plays, these poems are still famous today. Shakespeare’s most famous plays include Romeo and Juliet, Macbeth, Hamlet, King Lear, Othello, and Julius Caesar. Usually, Shakespeare did not invent the stories that he told in his plays. Instead, he wrote his plays using stories that already existed. However, Shakespeare’s plays told these stories in a more interesting way than ever before. Some of the stories were tragedies, some were comedies, and some described historical events. In his plays, Shakespeare revealed a very wide knowledge of many areas of life. The characters in his plays discuss many different topics, often with the knowledge of experts. But what is even more impressive about these plays is Shakespeare’s use of the English language. His vocabulary was very large, and Shakespeare seems to have introduced many words to the language! Also, many of the phrases that are said by Shakespeare’s characters are now used in everyday conversation. Today, writers often use quotations from Shakespeare’s plays in their own works. But perhaps even the most impressive features of Shakespeare’s plays are the characters within them. The many characters in his plays seem very different from each other, but they seem very realistic. The emotions they feel, the words they say, and the actions they perform are all easily understood. Many people who watch one of Shakespeare’s plays will find that they know people who remind them somewhat of the characters in those plays. Shakespeare died in the year 1619, but his writings are still popular today, 400 years after they were written. The poems and plays are greatly admired by experts in literature, but also by people in general. Each year, hundreds of thousands of people enjoy attending performances of Shakespeare’s plays. No other writer in the English language has remained so popular for such a long time.
reveale:
to make known something that was previously secret or unknown
ￚopposite concealHe may be prosecuted for revealing secrets about the security agency.a test that can reveal a teacher’s hidden skills
reveal (that)
He revealed that he had been in prison twice before.
reveal yourself (as/to be something)
The violinist revealed himself as a talented interpreter of classical music.
—
realistic:
realistic pictures or stories show things as they are in real life
a realistic portrayal of life in Victorian Britain
One of the most popular sports in northern countries is the game of ice hockey. Each winter, this sport is played by hundreds of thousands of children and adults in North America and in Europe. Ice hockey is a fast and exciting game that can make winter much more enjoyable. The game of ice hockey is played on a flat surface of ice called a rink. The rink is about 60 metres long, and about 25 or 30 metres wide. At any time, each team has six players on the ice. On their feet the players wear skates, whose thin metal blades allow fast movement along the ice surface. Learning to skate requires time and practice, but many people can skate very quickly and smoothly. In many ways, ice hockey is similar to soccer. However, unlike soccer, there is no large ball used in hockey. Instead, the players use a hard, black, rubber disk, which is called a puck. The players skate around the ice, trying to get the puck. They do not use their hands or their feet to control the puck. Instead, they carry long wooden sticks, which are shaped in such a way that it is easy to push the puck along the ice. The players can pass the puck to each other by sliding it across the ice. To score a goal, a hockey player must shoot the puck into the net of the opposingteam, but this is a difficult task. The net is less than two metres wide, and it is protected by a player called the goaltender. However, some players can shoot the puck very suddenly and with great power. Sometimes, the sport of ice hockey can be quite rough. Players try to take the puck from their opponents by bumping into them at a high speed. This is called a “body check.” Players are not allowed to hit each other with their sticks. If a player does this, then that player may be given a penalty by the referee, who enforces the rules of the game. Naturally, the sport of ice hockey is most popular in countries that have cold winters. The sport was first played in Canada, but it is also very popular in many countries of Europe, including Russia, Sweden, Finland, Slovakia, the Czech Republic, and Germany. In addition, many people play hockey in the United States. In previous generations, ice hockey was considered a sport for men and boys only. However, in recent years, women and girls have been playing hockey much more frequently than in the past. Not only do many girls enjoy playing hockey for fun, but now women’s hockey is officially a sport at the winter Olympics.
rink:
a specially prepared area of ice that you can skate on
—
puck:
a hard flat circular piece of rubber that you hit with the stick in the game of ice hockey
—
slid:
to move smoothly over a surface while continuing to touch it, or to make something move in this way
slide along/across/down etc
Francesca slid across the ice.
slide something across/along etc
He opened the oven door and slid the pan of cookies in.
He slid open the door of the glass cabinet.
—
opposing:
opposing teams, groups, or forces are competing, arguing, or fighting against each other
The opposing armies were preparing for war.
The Socialist Party has split into two opposing camps.
—
goaltender:
a goalkeeper
—
rough:
▶NOT GENTLE◀
using force, anger, or violence
ￚopposite gentle
Rugby is a very rough sport.
Don’t be too rough – she’s only little.
Paul gave her a rough shake.
equipment capable of withstanding rough treatment
The referee won’t allow any rough stuff (=violent behaviour) .
be rough on somebody (=treat someone unkindly or criticize them in an angry way)
Don’t you think you were a little rough on her?
—
opponent:
someone who you try to defeat in a competition, game, fight, or argument
Graf’s opponent in today’s final will be Sukova.
leading/main/chief opponent
During the primary elections, McCain was Bush’s leading opponent.
formidable/worthy opponent
In debate he was a formidable opponent.
He is admired even by his political opponents .
—
bump:
to hit or knock against something
bump against
I ran after him, bumping against people in my hurry.
bump into
Tim was a clumsy boy, always bumping into the furniture.
bump something on something
She bumped her arm on the table.
The roof was so low he bumped his head (=his head hit the roof) .
—
referee:
someone who makes sure that the rules of a sport such as football, basketball, or boxing, are followed
In recent years, many people have moved to North America from China, but many people do not know that Chinese people have a long history in Canada and the United States. During the nineteenth century, both Canada and the United States were rapidly expanding to the west, toward the Pacific Ocean. In those days, there were of course no cars or airplanes to allow people and goods to move across the land. Instead, the best method of long-distance transportation was the railroad. Railway trains could move quickly across the countryside. However, there was one problem: before the railway trains could run, railroads had to be built across very long distances. To build the railroads was a very big job. Many men would be needed because the distance was so long and the land was so difficult, with many mountains and rivers to be crossed. For the men who owned the railroad companies, it would have been too expensive to hire Canadian or American men to build the railroads because those workers would only work for high wages. The railroad owners decided to get workers from overseas. Many Chinese men were willing to work for low wages because they were very poor. These men would work very hard and send much of the money back to their relatives in China. Thousands of Chinese men were brought to North America to work on the railroads. They did good work, but their employers treated them badly. The work day was very long, and working conditions were very unsafe. Many Chinese men died in accidents while constructing the railroads. Some Chinese women also came to North America, but there were many more men than women. After the railroads were completed, by about the year 1900, very few Chinese people were allowed to come to North America. Most people in Canada and the United States were not familiar with Chinese people and did not want strangers to come to their countries. Any Chinese person who came to North America had to pay an expensive tax. This made it difficult for Chinese men to bring their wives and families to join them in North America. Later, the governments of Canada and the United States made Chinese immigration illegal. Eventually, the people of Canada and the United States realized that their laws had been unfair. They changed the rules so that Chinese people could immigrate in the same way that people from other countries could do so. In recent decades, many Chinese people have moved to North America, and have formed a very lively and successful community. Many cities, such as Toronto, Vancouver, San Francisco, and New York, have been enriched by Chinese culture. Chinese people are now very prominent in North America, just as they were many years ago.
expand:
to become larger in size, number, or amount, or to make something become larger → expansion OPP contract :
Water expands as it freezes.
Sydney’s population expanded rapidly in the 1960s.
exercises that expand the chest muscles
his expanding waistline
—
wage:
also wages
[plural]money you earn that is paid according to the number of hours, days, or weeks that you work
ￚsee also salary
He earns a good wage .
wage increase also wage rise
The wage increases will come into effect in June.
daily/weekly etc wage
a weekly wage of $250
wage levels/rates (=fixed amounts of money paid for particular jobs)
—
prominent:
important
a prominent Russian scientist
play a prominent part/role (in something)
Mandela played a prominent role in the early years of the ANC.
The World Cup will have a prominent place on the agenda.
Most people know that the English language is spoken by many millions of people around the world. However, few people are aware of the history of the English language. Today, English is one language, but in some ways it is a mixture of many different languages. The English language is most closely related to a group of languages called the Germanic languages. This group also includes languages such as German and Dutch. About 1500 years ago, these languages were not yet distinct from each other. Some of the people of Germany and the Netherlands then moved to England. Those people were called the Anglo-Saxons, and their language thenevolved into English. Most of the basic words of the English language are derived from these very old Anglo-Saxon languages. For example, the words for the parts of the body, for numbers, and for animals are mostly Anglo-Saxon words. Some new words were brought to England over 1000 years ago by people who came from the Scandinavian countries of northern Europe. Many words that begin with the letters “sk”, such as skin and skill, are Scandinavian words. A major change happened in the English language after the year 1066. In that year, England was conquered by a king from the northern part of France. He and his followers spoke French, so French became an important language in England. During the next few hundred years, the English language absorbed a very large number of French words. In fact, today’s English dictionaries contain more words of French origin than of Anglo-Saxon origin. Part of the reason why the English language has so many words is that it often has two words for each idea-one word of Anglo-Saxon origin, and one word of French origin. Many more words entered the English language a few hundred years ago, when science and technology became more widespread. Most scientific and technical words are derived from words of the ancient languages of Latin and Greek. Because there are so many of these scientific and technical words in the English language today, the influence of Latin and Greek has been quite large. Other languages have also contributed many words to the English language. Some words have come from the Celtic languages, spoken in Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. Many words have been added to the English language by immigrants who came to North America from various countries of Europe. Also, many more words have been adopted from the Native languages of North America, Australia, and the Pacific, and from the languages of peoples in Africa and Asia. All of these words have made English a very interesting language!
distinct:
a clear difference or separation between two similar things
distinction between
the distinction between formal and informal language
clear/sharp distinction
There is often no clear distinction between an allergy and food intolerance.
make/draw a distinction
The Act makes no distinction between children and adults (=it treats them as if they were the same) .
—
evolve:
to develop and change gradually over a long period of time
The school has evolved its own style of teaching.
Businesses need to evolve rapidly.
evolve out of
The idea evolved out of work done by British scientists.
evolve into
The group gradually evolved into a political party.
—
contribut:
to give money, help, ideas etc to something that a lot of other people are also involved in
contribute to/towards
City employees cannot contribute to political campaigns.
contribute something to/towards something
The volunteers contribute their own time to the project.
Another Source:
to join with others in giving (money, help, etc.):
I contributed (a dollar) towards Jane’s leaving present.
One of the most tragic parts of the history of North and South America is the period of African slavery. For hundreds of years, many people were taken from Africa, by force, to work in the fields of many different countries in North and South America.When Europeans first came to the Americas, some of them realized that they might make money by growing crops and selling them in Europe. However, in order to make money, they would need a cheap source of labor. Few Europeans would come to the Americas to work for low wages, so instead, the landowners looked for slaves. In the areas of the great farms, or plantations, there were few Indians, so they used another source of slaves: Africa. The plantation owners usually obtained slaves by buying them from local kings in western Africa. This led to many wars between rival kings within Africa, who tried to capture each other’s people in order to sell them as slaves. A few kings tried to avoid the slave trade, but this was very difficult. During a period of several hundred years, from the 1500s to the 1800s, about 12 million people were taken from western Africa to the Americas. Many more people died as slaves before leaving Africa, and many more died on the ships that took them to the Americas. This was because the conditions on the ships were extremely unhealthy: the ships were far too crowded, and there was little food and water. When the African slaves arrived in the Americas, the plantation owners made them work on farms that produced goods such as cotton and sugar. In many places, the work was very hard, and many of the slaves died from overwork. They were then replaced by other slaves who arrived from Africa. However, many slaves survived despite the brutal conditions. In some places, the African slaves were able torevolt against the plantation owners. However, this was difficult because the slaves who had recently arrived spoke many different languages. Some slaves escaped into wilderness areas and were able to remain free from the plantation owners. As time went by, many people in Europe and in the Americas realized that slavery was wrong. By the 1830s, slavery had been ended, or abolished, in islands owned by the British, and in parts of the United States. In the southern United States, slavery was ended in the 1860s, during the Civil War. In some countries, such as Brazil and Cuba, slavery only ended in the 1880s. Today, many millions of people in North and South America are the descendants of slaves who were brought from Africa. The effects of slavery have lasted for many generations, and there was much racial prejudice against African people even when slavery ended. However, some have achieved success despite these disadvantages. Today, the people of African background in North and South America are a very important part of the population in many countries.
slavery:
1
the system of having slaves
attempts to abolish slavery (=officially end it)
2
the state of being a slave
sell somebody into slavery (=sell someone as a slave)
—
plantation:
a large area of land in a hot country, where crops such as tea, cotton, and sugar are grown
a rubber plantation
—
Indian:
a member of one of the races that lived in North, South, and Central America before the Europeans arrived
ￚsynonym Native American
—
rival:
a person, group, or organization that you compete with in sport, business, a fight etc
ￚsynonym competitor
This gives the company a competitive advantage over its rivals.
rival for
his chief rival for the job
He finished 39 seconds ahead of his main rival .
She was 2 minutes faster than her nearest rival .
a game against their old rivals , Manchester UnitedThey still remain bitter rivals (=hate each other) .
Their sales have now overtaken those of their arch-rival (=main or strongest rival) .
rival company/firm/team etc
Sheena left her job and went to work for a rival company.
—
overwork:
too much hard work
a heart attack brought on by overwork
—
revolt:
1
a refusal to accept someone’s authority or obey rules or laws
ￚsynonym rebellionThe prime minister is now facing a revolt by members of his own party.
revolt against
a revolt against authority
revolt over
a revolt over the proposed spending cuts
in revolt
French farmers are in revolt over cheap imports.
2
strong and often violent action by a lot of people against their ruler or government
ￚsynonym rebellion
ￚsee also revolutionthe Polish revolt of 1863
revolt against
a revolt against the central government
revolt of
the successful revolt of the American colonies
put down/crush a revolt (=use military force to stop it) Troops loyal to the President crushed the revolt.
—
abolish:
to officially end a law, system etc, especially one that has existed for a long time
Slavery was abolished in the US in the 19th century.
Most people would like to have an attractive physical appearance, but some people become very worried about the way they look. This can sometimes lead them to do things that are unhealthy. For example, many women believe that they must be very thin in order to be attractive.They see pictures of fashion models who are very thin and then believe that an attractive woman must look the same way. However, many men prefer the appearance of women who are not so thin. In order to become thin, some women try to reduce the amount of food that they eat. When this is taken to an extreme, a woman might eat far too little food to remain healthy. Her weight may become dangerously low, as she tries to become thinner and thinner. This condition is called “anorexia,” and it affects many thousands of women in Western countries. Anorexia is one of several conditions known as eating disorders. Another eating disorder is called “bulimia.” A woman who has bulimia will sometimes eat large amounts of food, but then will try to eliminate the food, by vomiting. This is intended to prevent any weight gain, but it is also a very unhealthy behavior. Unfortunately, some women are concerned about being very thin, but some women have different concerns related to the appearance of their body. For example, some women believe that their breasts are not large enough, and undergosurgery to enlarge their breasts. In this surgery, some artificial substance isimplanted inside the breast to make it larger. Many women have had this surgery, but many of them have suffered serious health problems as a result. In recent years, many men have also become very concerned about their physical appearance. For example, some men believe that they must become very muscular in order to have an attractive appearance. To achieve this appearance, some men use drugs called steroids, which make it possible to gain large amounts of muscle. However, steroids can have very unhealthy side effects. In addition to drugs, some men have used surgery to change their physical appearance. For example, some men have had implants to make their arms, legs, or chest appear larger. It is unfortunate that so many people feel so unhappy about their physical appearance and that they do unhealthy things to change the way they look. Of course, everyone should try to be healthy, but people must also learn to accept their physical appearance. Many different body types can be attractive, and there is no single ideal body type. There is no need to use unnatural methods of changing one’s body.
anorexia:
a mental illness that makes someone stop eating
—
disorder:
lack of order; confusion; DISARRAY: The house was in a state of complete disorder because of the young children.
—
bulimia:
an illness in which a person cannot stop themselves from eating too much, and then vomits in order to control their weight
—
eliminate:
to completely get rid of something that is unnecessary or unwanted
eliminate a need/possibility/risk/problem etc
The credit card eliminates the need for cash or cheques.
The teacher should try to eliminate the possibility that the child has a hearing defect.
eliminate something/somebody from something
Fatty foods should be eliminated from the diet.
—
undergo:
to experience (esp. something unpleasant, unwelcome, or difficult): She’s undergoing treatment at the hospital. | The company has undergone some major changes in the last five years.
Another Source
if you undergo a change, an unpleasant experience etc, it happens to you or is done to you
The country has undergone massive changes recently. He has been released from prison to undergo medical treatment in the United States. She has been undergoing tests since Monday. Teachers should be expected to undergo mid-career training and development.
—
implant:
to put something into someone’s body by performing a medical operation
Surgeons successfully implanted an artificial hip.
—
steroid:
a chemical that the body produces naturally or that can be made as a drug to treat illness and injuries. Steroids are sometimes used illegally by people doing sports to improve their performance
on steroids
a bodybuilder on steroids
In modern society, many people find that they do not get very much exercise. They travel by bus, train, or car, and they can move up or down in elevators. They have machines that do most of the heavy work that was once done by people. However, exercise is important for staying healthy. A person who exercises frequently will be “physically fit.” There are different aspects of physical fitness. One important element of being physically fit is called cardio-vascular fitness. The word “cardio-vascular” refers to the heart and lungs. If one’s heart and lungs are in good condition, then one can exercise at a steady pace without soon getting tired. To develop cardio-vascular fitness, it is important to perform some exercise that makes one’s heart beat quickly. For example, a person can improve cardio-vascular fitness by riding a bicycle, by running, by swimming, byrowing, or even by walking quickly. Some people go to special places, called “health clubs” or “gyms,” where they can use different exercise machines to develop their cardio-vascular fitness. But many people improve their cardio-vascular fitness by playing recreational sports, such as tennis or soccer, or by dancing vigorously. By having good cardio-vascular fitness, one is less likely to suffer from heart disease. Of course, there is one way to improve cardio-vascular fitness that does not involve exercise: stop smoking! Another important aspect of physical fitness is called flexibility. Flexibility refers to one’s ability to stretch comfortably. For example, a healthy person should be able to touch his or her toes without bending the legs. People can perform various stretching exercises to improve flexibility. By being flexible, a person can avoid injuries that might otherwise affect their body. Yet another important aspect of physical fitness is the strength and endurance of one’s muscles. Many people suffer from injuries that result, in part, from weakness of the muscles. Muscularstrength and endurance can be improved by a variety of exercises. Some of these exercises involve lifting a weight, but other exercises simply involve pushing or pulling against the weight of one’s own body. One example is an exercise called the “push-up.” In this exercise, a person lies on the floor, with the face pointing down. The person bends his or her arms, so that the palms of the hands are on the floor, next to the shoulders. The person then pushes with his or her arms, lifting the upper part of the body above the ground until the arms are straight. Before starting to do any exercises, it is a good idea to have a medical check-up. Some people do not want to exercise because they think it will be too much work. However, many people find that they feel very good when they exercise. Exercising can be an enjoyable and fun way to maintain health and fitness.
cardio:
any type of exercise that makes the heart stronger and healthier, for example running
a combination of cardio, weight training, and kung fu
—
vascular:
relating to the tubes through which liquids flow in the bodies of animals or in plants
vascular disease
—
row:
to make a boat move across water using oars
row away/towards/across
She rowed across the lake.
Jenny used to row at college (=as a sport) .
—
recreational:
recreation noun
an activity that you do for pleasure or amusement → hobby , pastime , leisure :
His only recreations are drinking beer and watching football.
the provision of recreation facilities (= places or equipment for people to use to enjoy themselves )
recreation ground/area/room
a recreation area for children to play in
— recreational adjective :
recreational activities
THESAURUS
fun noun
especially spoken an experience or activity that is very enjoyable and exciting :
The course was fun.
Have you ever been windsurfing? It’s really good fun.
I just want to relax and have some fun.
It’ll be fun seeing all my old friends again.
Running around a freezing hockey field isn’t my idea of fun.
enjoyment noun
the feeling you get when you enjoy doing something :
I get a lot of enjoyment out of working with young children.
pleasure noun
an experience or activity that makes you feel happy and satisfied :
The game was a pleasure to watch.
One of her greatest pleasures was walking in the mountains.
Ted enjoyed the simple pleasures of life:
his family, his home, and his garden.
good/great time noun
especially spoken a time when you enjoyed yourself :
The kids all had a great time .
I remember the good times in Japan.
Were the 1960s really such great times?
a blast informal a very enjoyable experience – a very informal use :
The trip was a blast!
entertainment noun things such as performances and films which are intended to be enjoyable :
Three musicians provided the entertainment.
What do you do for entertainment around here?
They hired two dancers for entertainment.
relaxation noun a way of resting and enjoying yourself :
I play the piano for relaxation.
Her work left little time for relaxation.
leisure noun the time when you are not working, when you can enjoy yourself – used especially in compounds :
leisure activities
the leisure industry
People have more leisure time.
recreation noun formal activities that you do to enjoy yourself :
recreation facilities
The park is not just a place for recreation
—
vigorous:
using a lot of energy and strength or determination
Your dog needs at least 20 minutes of vigorous exercise every day. Environmentalists have begun a vigorous campaign to oppose nuclear dumping in the area. a vigorous debate Vigorous efforts are being made to find a solution to the problem. The measures provoked vigorous opposition in right-wing circles.
ￚvigorously adverb
—
endurance:
the ability to continue doing something difficult or painful over a long period of time
physical/mental endurance
She was pushed beyond her powers of endurance .
The marathon is a test of endurance .
endurance sports/training (=designed to test or improve your endurance)
—
Muscular:
having large, strong muscles
She was fast and strong, with a slender, muscular body.
He’s very muscular.
—
push-up:
an exercise in which you lie on the floor on your chest and push yourself up with your arms
British Equivalent: press-up
every morning I do fifty push-ups
—
maintain:
to continue to have, do, etc., as before; KEEP up: He took the lead, and maintained it until the end of the race. | I hope you will maintain your recent improvement. | Part of her job is to maintain good relations with our suppliers.
In most English-speaking countries, a person who is accused of a crime has the right to a “trial by jury.” In a trial by jury, the guilt or innocence of the accused person is decided by a group of 12 people, called jurors, who must listen to the evidence about the case. The idea of trial by jury is over 800 years old, but there was a time when criminal cases were decided in other ways. Today, many of these methods seem ridiculous and cruel. Many accused people were forced to undergoa trial by ordeal. There were several different kinds of this trial. For example, in the ordeal by fire, an accused man was forced to carry a red-hot piece of iron in his hand. People believed that if the man were innocent then the gods would protect him, and his hand would not be burned or blistered by the iron. Another form of the trial by ordeal was the ordeal by combat. If one person accused another of a crime, they would be forced to fight each other with some weapon. People believed that the gods would help the man who was right and allow him to win the fight. Yet another kind of ordeal was the ordeal by water. If a woman was accused of a crime, such as witchcraft, she might be thrown into a river with rocks attached to her. People believed that the gods would help an innocent woman and allow her to float on the water. Gradually, people realized that the trial by ordeal was a completely worthless way to judge a person’s innocence or guilt. They wanted a less barbaric way to decide criminal cases. During the twelfth century, a new method was introduced by one of the kings of England, Henry the Second. Henry said that criminal cases should be decided by the opinions of twelve honest men who knew about the crime, the victim, and the accused person. This was the beginning of trial by jury in English-speaking countries, and the method soon became very popular. People trusted this new method much more than they trusted the old methods. Later, the system of trial by jury changed somewhat. Instead of having a jury of twelve men and women who knew about the crime, juries were chosen so that the twelve people did not know anything about the crime. This change ensures that the jurors do not have any bias or prejudice about the case. When jurors do not know any of the people involved in the case, their decisions are more likely to be fair and accurate. Today, citizens in many countries are called occasionally for jury duty. This can be inconvenient for people who are busy with their work and family life. However, many men and women are willing to serve on juries because of a feeling of responsibility to society. The use of juries in criminal cases helps to ensure that justice is done.
jury:
a group of 12 ordinary people who listen to the details of a case in court and decide whether someone is guilty or not
the members of the jury
The jury found him not guilty.
the right to trial by jury
sit/serve on a jury (=be part of a jury)
—
juror:
a member of a jury
—
undergo:
if you undergo a change, an unpleasant experience etc, it happens to you or is done to you
The country has undergone massive changes recently. He has been released from prison to undergo medical treatment in the United States. She has been undergoing tests since Monday. Teachers should be expected to undergo mid-career training and development.
—
ordeal:
a terrible or painful experience that continues for a period of time
ordeal of
She then had to go through the ordeal of giving evidence.
She was forced to face the ordeal of withdrawal symptoms. He was beginning to wonder if he would survive the ordeal . Teresa had a transplant in 1989 and was just recovering from that ordeal when she suffered a brain hemorrhage. Soon the whole terrifying ordeal would be over.
—
blister:
a swelling on your skin containing clear liquid, caused for example by a burn or continuous rubbing
New shoes always give me blisters.
—
combat:
a fight or battle
—
witchcraft:
the use of magic powers, especially evil ones, to make things happen
—
barbaric:
very cruel and violent
The way the whales are killed is nothing short of barbaric.
—
bias:
a tendency to be in favor of or against something or someone without knowing enough to be able to judge fairly;
They complained of bias in the way the news media reported the story | an anti-government bias
Another Source:
an opinion about whether a person, group, or idea is good or bad which influences how you deal with it
political/gender/racial etc bias a discussion about political bias in the pressStudents were evaluated without bias or favoritism.
bias against/towards/in favour of
It’s clear that the company has a bias against women and minorities.
Benjamin Franklin was one of the most famous people in American history. He was never a President of the United States, but he made great achievements in many areas of life, including business, literature, science, and politics. Benjamin Franklin was born in the city of Boston, during the year 1706. In his early years, Franklin was very poor. As a young man, he worked for his older brother, who was a printer. However, the two brothers soon argued with each other. Benjamin decided to leave, and he moved to the city of Philadelphia. He worked very hard and soon became a successful printer. He published his own newspapers, and he also published books called almanacs, which contained many wise sayings. Many of the wise sayings in Franklin’s almanacs are still repeated today.Franklin’s printing business was very successful, but he was also very interested in science. He performed experiments on the topic of electricity. Some of these experiments were very dangerous. In one experiment, Franklin was almost killed when he went outside during a lightning storm and flew a kite that had a metal key attached. However, Franklin was lucky enough to avoid injury, and he learned new facts about electricity. In addition to scientific research, Franklin was also an inventor. He invented a new kind of eye-glasses called “bifocals.” Bifocals are eye-glasses that allow people to see things that are far away, but also allow them to read things that are very close. Another invention was a new kind of stove for burning wood. This new stove was much more efficient than the older stoves had been. He also invented a lightning rod, which keeps houses safe from lightning. Franklin was also interested in making his city a better place to live. He started a public library, and he helped to organize a hospital and a fire department. In addition, he supervised the postal service, which operated profitably under his command. In his later years, Franklin became heavily involved in politics. For most of Franklin’s life, the United States was not yet a country. Instead, the states were still colonies of England, but Franklin encouraged other Americans to become an independent country. When the United States became a country, Franklin became the American ambassador to France. The French people liked Franklin very much. Franklin later returned to the United States, and he died in 1790. Today, many Americans still admire the brilliant achievements of Benjamin Franklin, who did so much to improve people’s lives. The picture of Benjamin Franklin can be seen on the American hundred-dollar bill.
printer:
someone who is employed in the trade of printing
—
almanac:
a book produced each year containing information about a particular subject, especially a sport, or important dates, times etc
a football almanac a nautical almanac
—
experiment:
a scientific test done to find out how something reacts under certain conditions, or to find out if a particular idea is true
experiment with/in/on
experiments with alcohol-fuelled carsexperiments on sleep deprivation
experiment to test/see/demonstrate etc something The researcher sets up experiments to test the hypothesis.an experiment to assess the effect of stress on athletes carry out/perform/do/conduct an experiment Teachers are shown how to carry out many simple experiments.
by experiment
Many small birds guide themselves by the stars, as has been verified by experiment.
—
bifocals:
special glasses with an upper part made for seeing things that are far away, and a lower part made for reading
—
lightning rod:American English
a lightning conductor(British English)
a metal wire or bar that is attached to the side of a building and goes from the top to the ground, used to protect the building from lightning
profitable:
producing a profit or a useful result
ￚopposite unprofitable
The advertising campaign proved very profitable.
a highly profitable businessa profitable afternoon
ￚprofitably adverb
—
heavily:
in large amounts, to a high degree, or with great severity
ￚsynonym very
I became heavily involved in politics.
The report was heavily criticized in the press.
a heavily populated area
thousands of heavily armed troops
His wife was heavily pregnant at the time.
it rains/snows heavily
It’s been raining heavily all day.
drink/smoke heavily
Paul was drinking heavily by then.
heavily dependent/reliant/influenced
Britain is heavily dependent on imports for its raw materials.
—
colony:
a country or area that is under the political control of a more powerful country, usually one that is far away
ￚsee also colonial, colonize
Algeria was formerly a French colony.
—
brilliant:
▶EXCELLENT◀
British English excellent
The film was absolutely brilliant .
Many thousands of years ago, much of the world’s land area was covered in forests. Since that time, people have needed to clearthe forests by cutting down the trees in order to make room for their farms and cities. Today, forests are still being cleared, and many people are worried that too much forest area is being lost. There are many reasons why it is important to preserve forests. One reason is that the trees inside the forests help to remove carbon dioxide from the air and put oxygen back into the air. This is important, because scientists believe that too much carbon dioxide in the air might be causing the world’s temperature to increase quickly. The forests might help to reduce this problem by absorbing carbon dioxide from the air.Another reason for preserving forests is to maintain many different species of plants and animals. The forests are the home of a huge variety of plants and animals, which will become extinct if the forests are destroyed. These plants and animals are both beautiful and interesting, but they also have practical benefits for people. For example, doctors believe that many diseases might be treated by chemicals that are obtained from forest plants. Forests are also important for providing wood, or lumber, but sometimes people cut down too many trees for lumber. To preserve the forests, it is important to ensure that the amount of wood removed is not more than the amount of new wood that grows in the forest. Otherwise, the forest will gradually disappear. In many parts of the world, forests have already been cleared. In recent years, many forests have been cleared in South America, Africa, and southeast Asia. In other parts of the world, the forests had already been cleared a long time ago. There are only a few areas of the world where very large areas of forests have not yet been changed by people. These areas include the Amazon rain forest of Brazil, and the northern forests of Canada, Alaska, and Siberia. Some countries have passed laws to protect their forests from being cleared. For example, a country can declare its forest areas to be a national park and prevent the forests from being cut down. However, this is very difficult for poor countries to do. The people may want to cut down the forests to obtain wood, to gain access to natural resources in the forest areas, or to have new land for farming. When forests are cut down to gain new farmland, however, people usually find that the soil is not very good for farming. It is a difficult challenge to provide opportunities for poor people of these countries, and to protect the forests at the same time. However, it is very important that this challenge be met successfully because the forests will be needed by future generations of people.
preserve:
to save something or someone from being harmed or destroyed
ￚsee also preservation
We must encourage the planting of new trees and preserve our existing woodlands.
—
extinct:
an extinct type of animal or plant does not exist any more
Dinosaurs have been extinct for millions of years.
Pandas could become extinct in the wild.
an extinct species
—
practical:
▶REAL◀
relating to real situations and events rather than ideas, emotions etc
Candidates should have training and practical experience in basic electronics.
the practical problems of old age
They provide financial and practical help for disabled students.
a combination of theoretical and practical training
They haven’t thought about the practical consequences of the new regulations.
In practical terms , this means spending more time with each student.
—
lumber:
pieces of wood used for building, that have been cut to specific lengths and widths
—
clear:
▶SURFACE/PLACE◀
[transitive] to make somewhere emptier or tidier by removing things from it
Snowplows have been out clearing the roads.
clear something of something
Large area of land had been cleared of forest.
clear something from something
Workers have been clearing the wreckage from the tracks.
Dad cleared a space (=moved things so that there was room) in the garage for Jim’s tools.
It’s Kelly’s turn to clear the table (=remove the dirty plates, forks etc) .
Nowadays, the issue of violence on television is oftendebated. Many people are concerned that the images of violent acts might cause the viewers to become more aggressive. Some of these people believe that there should be restrictions on violent television programs. Other people feel that individuals should be able to choose what they want to watch on TV. Many of these people believe that violent television is unlikely to affect people’s behaviour. One of the concerns that some people have about violent TV is that viewers might imitate aggressive acts. For example, consider a TV program that shows professional wrestlers. Some people believe that children who watch the program might copy the actions of the wrestlers and that this could lead to serious injuries. As another example, consider a TV program that shows people shooting guns at each other. Some people believe that viewers of such a program might be morelikely to use a gun in their disputes with others. Another concern that some people have with violent TV is that it might make people less sensitive to the effects of violence. In other words, people who watch many acts of violence on television might no longer be shocked by violent acts. They might then become quite tolerant of the use of violence. Some people do not believe that violence on television is likely to have harmful effects. They point out that many terrible acts of violence occurred long before television. They also argue that people can tell the difference between television and real life. That is, they say that people are unlikely to imitate violent acts, and are unlikely to become less sensitive to violence in real life. Also, they argue that parents are able to prevent their children from watching violent television. Psychologists have conducted some research studies on the effects of violent television. Some studies have shown that children who watch a lot of violent TV do become slightly more aggressive as adults. Other studies have found that people behave somewhat more aggressively after watching a violent program. This is especially true for people who have an aggressive personality. Finally, some other research has found that rates of murder tend to increase slightly in the days following a televised boxing match. Nearly all psychologists now agree that violence on television does contribute to aggressive behaviour in everyday life. The issue of violence on television is difficult because it is a conflict between public safety and individual freedom. Some people feel that violent TV should be restricted because it might have harmful effects on society, but other people feel that individuals should be free to watch the programs that they like.
debate:
discussion of a particular subject that often continues for a long time and in which people express different opinions
the gun-control debate in the US
The new drug has become the subject of heated debate within the medical profession.
debate over/about
There has been widespread public debate over the introduction of genetically modified food. There was much lively debate about whether women should spend more time in the home.
A fierce debate raged over which artist’s work should be chosen for the prize.
debate between
the ongoing debate between environmentalists and the road-building lobby over the future of our countryside
Nuclear power has always been a topic that has sparked off considerable debate .
—
restriction:
a rule or law that limits or controls what people can do
restriction on
restrictions on immigration
a 50 mph speed restriction
trade/travel restrictions
impose/place restrictions on something
The law imposed new financial restrictions on private companies.
strict/tough/tight restriction
tougher restrictions on alcohol advertising
lift/remove a restriction
Restrictions on trade were lifted.
—
likely:
something that is likely will probably happen or is probably true
ￚopposite unlikely
Snow showers are likely tomorrow.
likely outcome/effects/consequences etc
What are the likely effects of the law going to be?
the most likely cause of the problem
likely to do/be something
Children who live in the country’s rural areas are very likely to be poor.
more/less/most/least likely
Young drivers are far more likely to have accidents than older drivers.
It is more than likely (=almost certain) the votes will have to be counted again.
It could have been an accident, but that was hardly likely (=not very likely) .
He could offer no likely explanation when I asked him.
a likely cause of his absence
it is likely to rain
he is not likely to win
—
dispute:
a serious argument or disagreement
dispute with
The firm is involved in a legal dispute with a rival company.
dispute over
He got into a dispute over a taxi fare.
Every effort was made to settle the dispute , but without success.
dispute between
the bitter border dispute between the countries
A long-running pay dispute is disrupting rail services.
The coal industry was plagued by industrial disputes .
The police don’t usually like to intervene in domestic disputes .
The miners were in dispute with their employers over pay.
A dispute arose over who was to be the next king.
—
tolerant:
it would mean that they get used to this type of violence,
they are no longer affected by it.
—
imitate:
to copy something because you think it is good
vegetarian products which imitate meat The Japanese have no wish to imitate Western social customs and attitudes.
—
televise:
to broadcast something on television
The game will be televised live on ABC tonight.
—
conflict:
a state of disagreement or argument between people, groups, countries etc
conflict over
conflicts over wage settlements
conflict between
the conflict between tradition and innovation
in conflict (with somebody)
normal kids who are in conflict with their parents
political/social/industrial conflict social and political conflict in the 1930sthe threat of industrial conflict in the coalfieldsMarx points out the potential conflicts below the surface of society.His views on the literal truth of the Bible brought him into conflict with other Christian leaders.Doctors exercise considerable power and often come into conflict with politicians.a lawyer specializing in conflict resolution
Not many people would want to live in the Arctic areas of northern Canada, Alaska, and Greenland. In these places, the summers are very short, and the winters are extremely
cold and dark. However, there are some people who have made this land their home for many generations. These people are called the Inuit. The word “Inuit” means “person” in the language of the Inuit, which is called Inuktitut.Before modern times, the Inuit had to survive by hunting. Because their homeland was in such a cold, northern place, the Inuit could not make a living by farming or by gathering plants. Many of the animals that the Inuit hunted are mammals that live in the water. For example, the Inuit used boats to hunt whales. Also, they hunted seals by waiting for the seals to rise to the surface of the water. Sometimes, the Inuit would hunt land mammals, such as polar bears. When eating the meat of the animals they had hunted, the Inuit often ate the meat raw. This was necessary because only raw meat could provide them with enoughnutrients to survive in a place where fruits and vegetables were not available. In previous times, the Inuit were known as the “Eskimos,” which means “people who eat raw meat.” However, the Inuit did not like this name. The Inuit invented many useful tools for surviving in the cold, northern areas. They sewed warm clothing from the furs and skins of the animals they hunted. For transportation, they used dogs, which could pull them in sleds across the snow. For making heat and light, they used lamps that burned the fat and oil of whales. The Inuit were famous for their houses made of snow, which were called igloos. The igloos were made by cutting blocks of snow and then using these blocks to build a small round-shaped house. People could enter or exit the igloo through a narrow tunnel. In recent decades, the Inuit have had much contact with the modern world. Inuit children now attend schools, and Inuit adults work at a variety of occupations. In some ways, the Inuit have found it difficult to adjust to the changes from their traditional ways, but the Inuit are meeting this challenge. In Canada, there is a new territory in the far north, called Nunavut, where most of the people, including the leaders, are Inuit. The Inuit are famous for their beautiful artwork. In particular, Inuit carvings or sculptures are known for their excellent quality. These carvings, which nowadays are made from a kind of stone called soapstone, depict people or animals such as bears, seals, or whales. In addition to paintings, Inuit artists have produced beautiful sketches and paintings of northern scenes.
Inuit:
someone who belongs to a race of people who live in the very cold northern areas of North America
ￚsee also Eskimo
—
nutrient:
a chemical or food that provides what is needed for plants or animals to live and grow
The plant absorbs nutrients from the soil.
—
igloo:
a house made from blocks of hard snow or ice
—
soapstone:
a soft stone that feels like soap
—
depict:
to describe something or someone in writing or speech, or to show them in a painting, picture etc
a book depicting life in pre-revolutionary Russia
depict somebody/something as something
The god is depicted as a bird with a human head.
—
sketch:
a simple, quickly-made drawing that does not show much detail
sketch of
Cantor drew a rough sketch of his apartment on a napkin.
Today, in the early twenty-first century, most countries no longer have kings and queens. However, some countries have remained as monarchies, including England and its former colonies. However, even in these countries, the monarch is a ceremonial figure who no longer has any real power over his or her subjects. These countries are called constitutional monarchies because they are democracies in which the monarch remains the official head of state.Many years ago, the kings and queens of England did have real power, but gradually this power was transferred to the people and their elected officials. It is interesting to examine how this transition occurred. Even in very early times, the king of England did not have absolute power. He was the most powerful man in the country, but he could not entirely force his will upon others. If he became too demanding, he might face opposition from powerful local land-owners. These men, called the barons, might resist a king who tried to become too strong. This is exactly what happened in the year 1215. The king of England had made many unreasonable demands upon the country, and the barons decided to resist. They forced the king to agree to a list of rules that would limit his power. These rules were written in a famous document called the Magna Carta. This document described not only the rights of the barons, but also of the common people of England. During the next few hundred years, the kings still had much power. However, some other people, such as the landowners and the richer men of the towns, also had influence. Their meetings became known as Parliaments, and the king had to share power with the parliament. During the 1640s, one king tried to rule without Parliament, and tried to take away the rights of Parliament. This led to a civil war, and the king was defeated. England soon became a monarchy again, but it became clear that Parliament would have more power than the king. Until the twentieth century, the Parliaments of England became more democratic, as more and more people were allowed to vote. Today, England still has a constitutional monarchy. But not all English-speaking countries recognize the English queen. For example, the United States became an independent country over 200 years ago and has been a republic ever since. In some countries, there is debate about the future of the monarchy. Canada, Australia, and New Zealand still recognize the queen of England as their own queen even though those countries are no longer governed by England. Many people in those countries want to abolish the monarchy. They believe that their countries should now have their own head of state. On the other hand, some people in those countries want to keep the monarchy because it reminds them of their country’s early history. This is an ongoing topic of debate for Canadians, Australians, and New Zealanders.
monarchy:
/mɒnəki/ the system in which a country is ruled by a king or queen
the abolition of the monarchy — ceremonial:
if a position in a country or organization is ceremonial, it gives no real power
the largely ceremonial post of President
—
constitutional: adjective
officially allowed or limited by the system of rules of a country or organization : a constitutional right to privacy a constitutional monarchy (= a country ruled by a king or queen whose power is limited by a constitution ) —
examine:
to look at something carefully and thoroughly because you want to find out more about it
A team of divers was sent down to examine the wreck. Hegel’s philosophy will be examined in detail in Chapter 4.
examine how/whether/what etc
In the course, we will examine how and why Spain became a democracy in 1931.
examine something for something
The police will have to examine the weapon for fingerprints. — transition:
formal when something changes from one form or state to another
transition from something to something
the smooth transition from full-time work to full retirement
Making the transition from youth to adulthood can be very painful.
a society that is in transition (=changing) the period of transition to full democracy —
demanding:
expecting a lot of attention or expecting to have things exactly the way you want them, especially in a way that is not fair
Her mother could be very demanding at times. —
baron:
a man, esp. a businessman, who has great power or influence: an oil baron | a press baron who owns three national newspapers | union barons|drug barons —
resist:
to oppose; fight against (something): The city resisted the enemy onslaught for two weeks. | The hospital is resisting the nurses’ demands for better conditions. | He was charged with resisting arrest. — demand:
claim
The management has refused to agree to our demand for a 6% pay raise. — Magna Carta:
an important document in British history which King John of England signed in 1215 at Runnymede in the south of England. By doing this he agreed that limits could be set on royal powers. Later, especially in the 17th century, the document was seen as a statement of basic civil rights. — defeat:
to win a victory over someone in a war, competition, game etc
ￚsynonym beat They hoped to defeat the enemy at sea.
defeat somebody by something
Newcastle were defeated by 3 goals to 2.
—
more and more: used to say that a quality, situation etc gradually increases
ￚsynonym increasingly More and more, we are finding that people want to continue working beyond 60.
As the disease worsened, he found walking more and more difficult.
—
constitutional: officially allowed or limited by the system of rules of a country or organization
a constitutional right to privacy a constitutional monarchy (=a country ruled by a king or queen whose power is limited by a constitution) —
recognize: to officially accept that an organization, government, document etc has legal or official authority
British medical qualifications are recognized in Canada.
recognize something as something
The World Health Organization has recognized alcoholism as a disease since 1951.
to accept as being legal or real, or as having value: They refused to recognize our government/to recognize the union. — ever since:
all the time since —
abolish:
stop, to officially end a law, system etc, especially one that has existed for a long time
*Slavery was abolished in the US in the 19th century.
*they abolished slavery
*a government plan to abolish school lunch programs — ongoing:
continuing, or continuing to develop
*their ongoing search for a new director
*ongoing negotiations
*The discussions are still ongoing.
*ongoing process
*ongoing discussions
Alcohol is the oldest drug that is used in Western countries. For thousands of years, people have made alcoholic beverages. These beverages are made by allowing a process called fermentation to occur. Alcoholic fermentation happens when yeasts or bacteria break down the sugars that occur in some liquids, and convert some of those sugars into alcohol. Many liquids, such as fruit juices, can ferment.Thousands of years ago, alcoholic drinks were common in the Middle East. However, the Islamic religion forbids alcohol, so very little alcohol is consumed in this part of the world. In European countries, and in other parts of the world, many different kinds of alcoholic beverages are produced and consumed. In warmer areas of Europe, people make wine by allowing grape juice to ferment. In cooler areas of Europe, people make beer by fermenting liquids made from water and various grains. The process of fermentation is also used to make stronger drinks known as “spirits.” These drinks include vodka, whiskey, and rum. The techniques for making good wine, beer, and spirits have been developed over hundreds of years, and require scientific precision. Some people have developed a great appreciation for well-made wine, beer, or spirits, and have become experts about the many different varieties of these beverages. Many people appreciate the taste of alcoholic beverages, but many also enjoy the feelings that alcohol causes. Alcohol belongs to a category of drugs called “depressants” because it “depresses” the central nervous system, causing a person to feel less inhibited or restrained. Many people enjoy this feeling, but when a person drinks a lot of alcohol, he or she loses co-ordination, balance, and judgment. Speech may become unclear, and the person may speak too much. Some people become aggressive or depressed. When a person is under the influence of alcohol, the person is said to be drunk. One of the problems that can result from alcohol consumption is known as “drunk driving.” Some people try to drive a car after having consumed alcohol, but this is extremely dangerous. Each year, thousands of people are killed by drunk drivers who lose control of their cars. In recent years, attempts have been made to reduce this problem, by public education campaigns and by strict laws and punishments. If you drink, don’t drive! Another problem associated with alcohol is addiction, known as alcoholism. Some people drink so frequently that they develop a physiological addiction to alcohol. This problem can have terrible consequences for a person’s health, personal relationships, and career. Alcoholic beverages are firmly a part of Western culture, and of many other cultures also. On the one hand, drinks provide many people with much enjoyment and appreciation. On the other hand, alcohol is a drug that can be abused, leading to accidents and addiction.
beverage:
a liquid for drinking, esp. one that is not water or medicine:
*alcoholic beverages
*hot beverages (=tea, coffee, etc.)
Another Source
formal
a hot or cold drink
*the Food and Beverage Manager
*food and all kinds of non-alcoholic beverages
—
ferment:
to (cause to) change chemically and become filled with gas by the action of certain living substances such as YEAST, esp. in such a way that sugar turns to alcohol:
*The wine is beginning to ferment.
*Hard cider is fermented apple juice.
*fermented fruit juice
*grape juice ferments and becomes winefermentation:
alcohol is made through the fermentaion of sugar
—
yeast:
a type of fungus used for producing alcohol in beer and wine, and for making bread rise
—
occur:
to happen or exist in a particular place or situation
occur in/among etc
Whooping cough occurs mainly in young children. The highest rates of unemployment occur in the inner urban areas.
—
consume:
formal
to eat or drink something
Alcohol may not be consumed on the premises.
this car consumes too much gasoline
the guest consumed all of the food
—
spirit:
especially British English
a strong alcoholic drink such as whisky or brandy
—
precision:
exactness: Scientific instruments have to be made with great precision.
Another Source:
the quality of being very exact or correct
with precision
The work was carried out with military precision (=the work was done in a carefully planned and exact way) .
words must be defined with absolute precision
the number 2.42 shows a higher precision than the number 2.4
precision instruments
a precision landing
—
depressant:
a substance or drug that makes your body processes slower and makes you feel very relaxed or sleepy
—
co-ordination: (this dash in co-ordination is for British English)
the way in which your muscles move together when you perform a movement
Too much alcohol affects your coordination.
Dancers need good coordination/a good sense of coordination.
—
consumption:
▶FOOD/DRINK◀
a) formal the act of eating or drinking
ￚsee also consume
consumption of
The consumption of alcohol on the premises is forbidden.
fit/unfit for human consumption (=safe or not safe to eat) The meat was declared unfit for human consumption.
b) the amount of a substance that people eat, drink, smoke etc
alcohol/tobacco/caffeine etc consumption The Government wants to reduce tobacco consumption by 40%.
Another Source:
the act of consuming or an amount consumed (CONSUME): Consumption of oil has declined in recent years. | The food was declared unfit for human consumption. | The car’s fuel consumption is very high. | There’s too great a consumption of alcohol among young people.
—
campaign:
a connected set of actions intended to obtain a particular result, esp. in politics or business: She fought a successful election campaign. | an advertising campaign | The surgeon general has launched a campaign against smoking. | He is a campaign coordinator for a well-known charity.
Another Source
a series of actions intended to achieve a particular result relating to politics or business, or a social improvement
Florida was a key state in his campaign for re-election.an anti-bullying campaignan advertising campaign
campaign for/against
a campaign for equal rights
Jones ran a good campaign . campaign funds/money/financing He raised nearly $30 million in campaign funds. launch/mount a campaign (=plan, organize, and begin a campaign) Police have launched a campaign to crack down on drug dealers.
Please search this word in http://www.salamzaban.com‘s contents
—
consequence:
result, something that happens as a result of a particular action or set of conditions
Many believe that poverty is a direct consequence of overpopulation.
consequence for
Our findings have far-reaching consequences for researchers.
dire/disastrous/serious etc consequences
Errors in forecasting can have dire consequences.
with … consequences
He ate some poisonous mushrooms, with fatal consequences.
take/suffer/face the consequences (of something) (=accept the bad results of something you have done) He broke the law, and now he must face the consequences of his actions.
The high level of unemployment has produced harmful social consequences.
The safety procedures had been ignored, with disastrous consequences.
You made the wrong decision, and now you must take the consequences. (=accept the bad things that happen as a result)
As a/In consequence of your laziness and rudeness, I am forced to dismiss you.
Of the fifty states in the United States, forty-nine are located on the mainland of North America. The other state is Hawaii, which consists of several islands in the middle of the Pacific Ocean. Hawaii is known as an especially beautiful and interesting place. The Hawaiian islands were formed by volcanic eruptions that pushed molten rock, called “lava,” above the surface of the ocean. Some of the islands no longer have any volcanic activity, but there are still active volcanoes on two Hawaiian islands, Oahu and the “big island” (which is known simply as Hawaii). One of these volcanoes, Mauna Loa, still erupts sometimes, with spectacular explosions of lava. Another volcano, called Mauna Kea, is now dormant. These volcanoes are both very tall and reach over 4000 metres above sea level. The air above Mauna Kea is so clear and thin that scientists use the mountain as a base for observing the stars. The islands of Hawaii are located in the tropics, and they are known for their beautiful weather. The temperatures are usually in the range of 20 to 30 degrees Celsius, and the days are usually sunny. This weather allows people to enjoy swimming and surfing on the beautiful beaches of Hawaii. Despite the sunshine, most of the islands also receive enough rainfall to support many beautiful flowers and trees. The first people to live in Hawaii were Polynesian groups who arrived from other islands in the Pacific, well over 1000 years ago. The islands were visited by European explorers during the late eighteenth century. During the early nineteenth century, the islands became unified under a single king. However, during this time, many Hawaiians died from diseases that were brought by European and American visitors. The Hawaiian islands are excellent places for growing sugar cane and pineapples. In the late eighteenth century, some Americans began large farms, called “plantations,” in Hawaii. The Americans eventually gained control of the government, and Hawaii became a territory of the United States. The United States built a naval base on the island of Oahu, at Pearl Harbor. This base was attacked by Japan in 1941, but it was soon repaired. The naval base is still in use today. During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, there was great demand for labour on the sugar and pineapple plantations. People came to Hawaii from many lands, and Hawaii became a place of many cultures. The native Hawaiians mixed with people from places such as Japan, China, Korea, the Philippines, Portugal, and Puerto Rico, as well as themainland United States. Today, many Hawaiians can claim a diverse heritage. In 1959, Hawaii became the 50th state of the United States, with the city of Honolulu as its capital. Today, there are more than one million people in Hawaii, more than half of whom live in Honolulu. Each year, many more people visit Hawaii as tourists, to experience the beauty of these islands.
volcanic:
relating to or caused by a volcano
black volcanic sand
—
eruption:
if a volcano erupts, it explodes and sends smoke, fire, and rock into the sky
the eruption of Alvand
—
lava:
hot liquid rock that flows from a volcano, or this rock when it has become solid
—
spectacular:
very sudden, unexpected, or extreme
The news caused a spectacular fall in the stock market.
—
dormant:
not active or not growing at the present time but able to be active later
ￚopposite active
lie/remain dormant
The seeds remain dormant until the spring.
a huge dormant volcano
Another Source:
inactive, esp. not actually growing or producing typical effects: These bulbs remain dormant for a period of time, before becoming active again under the ground during winter. | a dormant volcano | (fig.) The report lay dormant for two years while the company tried to find additional finances to implement its suggestions.
—
thin:
easy to see through; not DENSE: thin mist | The air on top of the mountain was very thin.
—
observe:
to watch something or someone carefully
The police have been observing his movements.
One student performs the experiment, while his partner observes.
observe what/how/where
Observe how the people in the group interact.
—
tropic:
the hottest part of the world, which is around the equator
plant species found in the tropics
—
unified:
created from more than one part, group etc
a unified approach a
unified EU import market
—
sugarcane:
a tall tropical plant from whose stems sugar is obtained
—
naval:
relating to the navy or used by the navy
a naval officer naval battles
—
base:
▶MILITARY◀
[countable]a place where people in a military organization live and work
a military base
an air base
military/naval/air base
—
mainland:
the mainland
the main area of land that forms a country, as compared to islands near it that are also part of that country
flights between a Greek island and the mainland
on the mainland
terrorist attacks both in Northern Ireland and on the mainland
—
diverse:
very different from each other
subjects as diverse as pop music and archaeology
—
heritage:
the traditional beliefs, values, customs etc of a family, country, or society
the importance of preserving the national heritage
beautiful old buildings which are part of our heritage
cultural/architectural/literary etc heritage
the cultural heritage of Italy
Louis Pasteur was one of the greatest scientists of all time. Pasteur made very important discoveries in biology and chemistry, and the techniques he developed helped greatly to develop medical science and the agricultural and food industries.Pasteur was born in a small town in France during the year 1822. When he was a young man, Pasteur studied science at a university in the city of Paris. He soon did some excellent work in chemistry, and later began his famous study of germs.
adj)
